riculto 


Kansas  State  Board  o 


Quarter  Endin 


FA     N  KANSAS 


^^^^^  arterly  by  the 

KANSAS  STATF  TCO\RD  OF  AGRICULTURE 
•PHLER,  Secretary 

4,  KANSAS 

6-3601 


Entered  at  the  post  office,  Topeka,  Kan.,  as  second-class  matter,  Act  of  June  6,  1900. 


-r 

REPORT 


OF  THE 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture 


FOR  THE 


Quarter  Ending  June,  1916 


ALFALFA  IN  KANSAS 


J.  C.  MOHLER,  Secretary, 

TOPE K A,  KANSAS 


KANSAS  STATE  PRINTING  PLANT. 

W.  R.  SMITH,  State  Printer. 

TOPEKA.     1916. 

6-3601 


KANSAS  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

1916. 


MEMBERS. 

ARTHUR  CAPPER,  Governor,  •)  „      ~  .     „,      . 
J.  T.  BOTKIN,  Secretary  of  State, \  Ex  offiew'  Topeka' 

I.  L.  DIESEM, Garden  City,    . 

CHAS.  E.  SUTTON,    ....  Lawrence,  . 

O.  O.  WOLF, Ottawa,      .     .      . 

H.  W.AVEQY^  • Wakefield, 

H.  £fr;*TH(5MPSoN,     ....  Sylvia,        .      .      . 

THps,  M.  POTTER;'.      .      .      .  Peabody,    .      .     . 

•  3!.*..^:  HUBBA^D,       ....  Wellington. 

'  l!.  L.  BARRIER, Eureka,      .      .     . 

H.  M.  LAING, Russell,      .     .     ., 

E.  E.  FRIZELL, Larned, 


Finney  county. 
Douglas  county. 
Franklin  county. 
Clay  county. 
Reno  county. 
Marion  county. 
Sumner  county. 
Greenwood  county. 
Russell  county. 
Pawnee  county. 


PRESIDENT,  .     . 
VICE  PRESIDENT, 
TREASURER, 
SECRETARY,  . 


OFFICERS. 

J.  T.  TREDWAY, 
R.  B.  WARD,    . 
A.  W.  SMITH, 
J.  C.  MOHLER, 


La  Harpe. 
Belleville. 
McPherson. 
Topeka. 


BOTANISTS,     . 

CHEMISTS, 

ENTOMOLOGISTS, 

VETERINARIANS, 

GEOLOGIST,     . 
METEOROLOGIST, 


OFFICERS  BY  APPOINTMENT. 

j  PROF.  H.  F.  ROBERTS,    .      .      .  Manhattan. 

(  PROF.  L.  E.  SAYRE,    ....  Lawrence. 

PROF.  J.  T.  WILLARD,    .      .      .  Manhattan. 

PROF.  J.  T.  LOVEWELL,       .      .  Topeka. 

PROF.  E.  H.  S.  BAILEY,  .      .      .  Lawrence. 

PROF.  GEO.  A.  DEAN,     .      .      .  Manhattan. 

PROF.  S.  J.  HUNTER,       .      .      .  Lawrence. 

DR.  O.  O.  WOLF, Ottawa. 

DR.  C.  J.  SIHLER,      ....  Kansas  City 

DR.  F.  S.  SCHOENLEBER,  .      .  Manhattan. 

DR.  W.  R.  BARNARD,     .      .      .  Belleville. 

PROF.  ERASMUS  HAWORTH,  .  Lawrence. 

T.B.JENNINGS,       ....  Topeka. 

(Observer  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.) 


MAIN  LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE  DEiHr 


PREFACE. 


NOWHERE  are  conditions  more  favorable  to  the  profitable  production 
of  alfalfa  than  in  Kansas.  The  rise  in  importance  of  this  legume 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  our  agriculture.  Its  advent  was  epochal  in  the 
state's  history.  That  it  has  contributed  handsomely  to  the  present-day 
affluence  of  the  Kansas  farmer  can  not  be  gainsaid;  that  it  will  be  more 
largely  depended  upon  in  the  future  is  certain.  Appreciating  the  ad- 
vantages of  alfalfa,  the  husbandmen  of  Kansas  confidently  look  forward 
to  broader  expansion  in  the  possibilities  of  our  agriculture,  to  increased 
per  capita  wealth  and  enhanced  land  values,  to  better  homes  and 
greater  comforts. 

While  the  plant  is  now  held  in  universal  esteem,  the  fact  is  recalled  that 
during  the  first  years  of  its  introduction  there  was  much  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  the  real  value  of  alfalfa.  New  and  strange  to  our  agri- 
culture, its  entrance  to  Kansas  quite  naturally  was  not  met  with  a  spon- 
taneous and  unanimous  welcome.  It  had,  to  be  sure,  its  staunch  advocates, 
but  there  were  many  who  deemed  it  of  doubtful  worth  and  by  some  it 
was  promptly  rejected.  So  late  as  1887  one  of  the  correspondents  of  the 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  a  keenly  observant  farmer-scientist  of  Rooks 
county,  wrote: 

"It  is  a  plant  having  many  warm  friends  and  also  a  squad  of  bitter 
enemies.  I  have  read  much  in  favor  of  it,  and  much  condemning  it  in  the 
severest  terms." 

Some  persons  believed  alfalfa  to  be  poisonous,  doubtless  because  of  the 
tendency  to  bloat  ruminants  when  they  were  allowed  to  graze  on  it  at  will, 
and  many  reports  were  to  the  effect  that  stock  refused  to  eat  it.  An  ex- 
ample of  the  latter  is  given  by  a  pioneer  settler  of  Geary  county,  now 
living  in  Shawnee,  who  wrote: 

"My  neighbor  in  Geary  county,  along  in  the  early  seventies,  tried 
alfalfa.  The  seed  was  sown  on  sandy  soil  and  grew  vigorously.  When 
it  had  attained  a  height  of  about  sixteen  inches  an  armful  was  cut  for 
the  horses,  but  they  would  n't  even  taste  it.  The  grower  concluded,  there- 
fore, that  it  was  a  noxious  weed." 

Because  of  diverse  opinions  and  experiences  such  as  these  the  progress 
of  alfalfa  was  slow  in  the  years  immediately  following  its  introduction. 
Skepticism,  however,  was  banished  and  mistaken  beliefs  rectified  as  the 
merits  of  the  plant  became  better  known  through  more  extensive  and 
intimate  acquaintance.  Those  who  early  recognized  its  value  persistently 
urged  its  growing,  and  their  estimates  of  its  worth  have  been  more  than 
justified  by  subsequent  events. 

A  careful  search  of  the  records  discloses  that  alfalfa  was  first  men- 
tioned in  the  reports  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1877,  when 
Alfred  Gray  was  the  Board's  secretary.  He  observed  that: 

"In  the  West — in  fact,  throughout  Kansas — alfalfa  promises  to  be 
eminently  successful.  Especially  in  the  West,  where  rainfall  is  variable 

(3) 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


to  some  extent,  and  less  than  in  the  East,  its  determined  fibrous  roots 
descend  to  a  great  depth  and  it  flourishes  beyond  all  expectation." 

In  subsequent  reports  alfalfa  was  referred  to  now  and  then,  but  it 
appears  that  it  was  not  until  1882  that  the  Board's  real  campaign  for  al- 
falfa in  Kansas  was  systematically  begun.  In  its  report  of  that  year, 
E.  M.  Shelton,  of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  advocated  the  sowing 
of  alfalfa,  and  gave  directions  believed  to  be  best  calculated  for  success. 
Among  other  things  he  wrote: 

"Alfalfa  is  a  forage  plant  that  well  deserves  the  attention  of  Kansas 
farmers.  Wherever  a  soil  of  good  sandy  texture  is  found  alfalfa  will 
prove  of  incalculable  benefit." 

In  the  report  of  1883  Professor  Shelton  was  somewhat  more  emphatic ; 
thus,  in  part: 

"In  regard  to  the  value  of  alfalfa  for  Kansas,  we  have  no  hesitation  in 
saying  that,  all  things  considered,  it  is  the  most  valuable  clover,  especially 
for  the  western  and  southwestern  sections  of  the  state.  In  the  south- 
western portion,  along  the  Arkansas  river,  where  irrigation  is  practiced, 
it  has  proved  a  most  invaluable  forage  plant." 

To  Secretary  Martin  Mohler  belongs  the  credit  of  first  according  to 
alfalfa  a  place  in  the  Board's  statistical  reports,  which  he  did  in  1891.  In 
that  first  census  the  county  of  Finney,  in  the  Arkansas  river  valley  and 
only  two  counties  removed  from  the  Colorado  line,  had  more  than  twice 
the  alfalfa  acreage  of  any  other  county,  and  more  than  one-fifth  of  the 
total  for  the  state;  while  its  neighbors,  Gray  on  the  east  and  Kearny  on 
the  west,  were  also  among  the  leaders  at  that  time.  It  is  in  this,  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  state,  that  alfalfa  made  greatest  headway  in 
the  earlier  years. 

From  1891  to  the  present  time  yearly  records  have  been  carefully 
compiled  with  respect  to  the  state's  alfalfa  acreage  by  counties.  These 
annual  inventories  constitute  a  most  interesting  exhibit  in  Kansas  his- 
tory, and  reveal  alfalfa's  wonderful  growth  in  popularity —  from  34,000 
acres  in  1891  to  1,360,000  acres  in  1915,  with  few  exceptions  showing  each 
year  a  steady  and  regular  gain. 

The  table  below  gives  the  total  alfalfa  acreage  in  Kansas  for  each 
year  since  the  beginning  of  the  crop's  statistical  record: 


Year. 
1891 

Acres. 
34  384 

Year. 
1900 

Acres. 
276  008 

Year. 
1908     

Acres. 
878,283 

1892 

62  583 

1901 

319,142 

1909  

993,539 

1893 

75  200 

1902 

458,493 

1910  

926,492 

1894 

90  825 

1903  .... 

566,592 

1911  

976,094 

1895 

139,878 

1904  

557,569 

1912  

1,000,785 

1896 

155,949 

1905  

602,560 

1913  

1,026,299 

1897 

171  334 

1906 

614,813 

1914  

1,193,641 

1898 

231  548 

1907 

743,050 

1915  

1,359,498 

1899  

....       278,477 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


The  following  table  shows  the  Kansas  alfalfa  acreage  by  counties,  in 
1891  and  1915: 


i 

\.cres. 

A 

cres. 

1891. 

1915. 

1891. 

1915. 

Allen                        

7 

8,239 

Linn  

2 

6,890 

7 

9,793 

Logan 

28 

4  947 

Atchison      

7,348 

Lyon  

1,098 

39,558 

Barber 

694 

9,580 

Marion 

851 

27  936 

Barton  

394 

7,494 

Marshall  

135 

25,303 

Bourbon 

6 

11,482 

McPherson 

980 

21  973 

Brown  

33 

15,887 

Meade  

240 

9,593 

Butler 

503 

50,005 

Miami             

7  845 

Chase  

1,401 

24,056 

Mitchell  

880 

20,231 

Chautauqua  

323 

16,179 

Montgomery  

29 

15  038 

Cherokee 

1 

1,335 

Morris 

120 

23  960 

Cheyenne  

321 

2,540 

Morton  

5 

60 

Clark 

437 

2,937 

Nemaha 

31 

24  265 

Clay.  .  . 

53 

17,593 

Neosho  

10 

9  231 

Cloud 

2,018 

22,338 

Ness 

6 

4  71§ 

Coffey   

87 

17,632 

Norton  

442 

6,850 

Comanche 

118 

3,789 

Osage 

20 

27  216 

Cowley  

416 

42,798 

Osborne  

379 

16,949 

Crawford  .   . 

6 

2,119 

Ottawa 

756 

12  186 

Decatur.  .  . 

160 

4,489 

Pawnee  

210 

6,443 

Dickinson     . 

703 

29,610 

Phillips 

111 

16  258 

Doniphan  

2 

11,709 

Pottawatomie  

334 

28,981 

Douglas  

12 

15,221 

Pratt 

50 

3  184 

Edwards.  . 

217 

2,537 

Rawlins  

185 

6,956 

Elk... 

54 

22,489 

Reno 

654 

19  042 

Ellis 

66 

2,411 

Republic 

496 

34  840 

Ellsworth  

110 

7,752 

Rice 

635 

16  636 

Finney  .  .  . 

5,717 

13,923 

Riley  

136 

22,741 

Ford  

738 

6,267 

Rooks 

65 

8  231 

Franklin.  . 

4 

13,830 

Rush  

15 

3  072 

Garfield*  

68 

Russell 

203 

5  474 

Geary  

167 

9,237 

Saline  

1,099 

19,950 

Gove  

12 

1,808 

Scott 

20 

1  426 

Graham 

57 

3  463 

Sedgwick 

1  023 

40  734 

Grant  

27 

270 

Seward  . 

L>  14 

Gray  

1,062 

860 

Shawnee  

63 

22,735 

Greeley  

31 

240 

Sheridan 

85 

3  590 

Greenwood  

421 

31,859 

Sherman  

174 

2,799 

Hamilton  

733 

4,303 

Smith 

53 

36  754 

Harper  

160 

13  040 

Stafford 

128 

6  575 

Harvey.  . 

282 

18,210 

Stanton 

3 

'  95 

Haskell  

4 

1 

Stevens  

51 

38 

1,146 

Sumner 

383 

28  309 

Jackson  

59 

14,236 

Thomas  

77 

551 

Jefferson 

6 

15  555 

21 

1  517 

Jewell  

296 

50,196 

1  031 

25  908 

Johnson 

6  460 

Wallace 

73 

5  092 

Kearny  

2,188 

7,633 

Washington 

206 

34  743 

Kingman.  .  . 

59 

6,902 

Wichita 

30 

934 

Kiowa  

83 

760 

Wilson 

34 

22  944 

Labette 

10 

9  828 

Woodson 

74 

6  595 

Lane  

30 

1,734 

Wyandotte 

101 

2  575 

g 

8  092 

Lincoln  

131 

9^852 

The  State  

34,384 

1,359,498 

*  Garfield  county  became  a  part  of  Finney  county  in  1893. 


6  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

As  illustrative  of  the  effect  the  introduction  of  alfalfa  had  on  our 
agriculture,  it  may  be  cited  that  before  its  advent  tame-hay  plants  were 
limited  practically  to  the  counties  of  the  eastern  third  of  the  state.  At 
that  time  Jewell,  a  north-central  county,  for  example,  had  no  tame  hay; 
to-day  Jewell  is  the  leading  tame-hay  county,  with  more  than  fifty 
thousand  acres  of  alfalfa  alone.  Other  counties  of  the  central  and  west- 
ern portions  have  shown  decided  increases  in  their  tame-hay  acreages, 
as  have  the  counties  in  the  eastern  part,  for  even  where  the  clovers 
prosper  the  areas  in  alfalfa  have  been  greatly  widened.  In  1891,  alfal- 
fa's statistical  birth  year,  the  state's  hay  yield,  mostly  clover  and  timothy, 
was  about  700,000  tons,  worth  $3,500,000 ;  while  in  1915  it  was  5,000,000 
tons,  worth  $32,000,000,  of  which  approximately  $28,500,000  represented 
alfalfa.  In  this  time,  also,  the  annual  value  of  the  products  of  live  stock 
more  than  doubled,  an  increase  which  is  largely  attributed  to  alfalfa.  In 
fact,  alfalfa  has  grown  in  importance  until  its  acreage  is  exceeded  by 
only  three  cultivated  crops,  namely,  wheat,  corn,  and  oats,  and  the  margin 
of  oats  is  scant.  Alfalfa  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the  development  and 
prosperity  of  Kansas'  farming  industry,  and  as  a  tame-hay  plant  it  stands 
supreme  in  longevity,  yields,  feeding  value,  soil  building  and  economy, 
and  in  adaptability  to  wide  variations  of  soils  and  climate. 

At  the  Kansas  City  hay  market,  preeminently  the  market  of  Kansas 
hay,  alfalfa  was  a  stranger  until  1898,  and  the  first  quotations  there  were 
$6  to  $6.50  a  ton,  or  about  the  same  as  prairie  hay,  and  with  little  demand. 
It  was  not,  however,  long  available  at  such  prices,  because  feeders,  es- 
pecially dairymen,  outside  the  principal  alfalfa-growing  territory,  were 
quick  to  recognize  its  merits,  until  in  1900,  two  years  later,  "choice" 
alfalfa  reached  the  $10  mark,  and  since  then  it  has  sold  above  that,  all 
the  way  up  to  $25  or  more.  Notwithstanding  annual  receipts  of  alfalfa 
at  Kansas  City  have  quadrupled  in  the  past  ten  years  prices  have 
steadily  held  high. 

No  other  state  has  so  large  an  area  devoted  to  alfalfa  as  Kansas.  The 
following  diagram,  based  on  the  United  States  census  of  1910,  which 
affords  the  latest  available  comparable  figures,  showing  the  six  leading 
states  in  alfalfa  acreage,  strikingly  portrays  the  state's  enviable  position 
with  respect  to  alfalfa  growing: 


KANSAS. 

NEBRASKA. 

COLORADO. 


ACRES. 
956,962 

685,282 
508,892 


CALIFORNIA.       ••^^^••••••^••i 484,134 


IDAHO.  MBHBHHBH 308,892 

UTAH.  '••BBI^HBB 284,183 

Since  1910  there  have  been  substantial  gains — the  result  of  the  hus- 
bandmen's constantly  growing  appreciation  for  this  premier  farm  forage 
crop  and  valued  fertilizer. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  1 

From  this  long-continued  and  extensive  experience  with  alfalfa  in 
Kansas  a  vast  fund  of  knowledge  with  respect  to  its  successful  manage- 
ment has  accumulated.  To  make  accessible,  in  a  compact  and  readily  un- 
derstandable form,  the  essence  of  such  knowledge  is  the  purpose  of  this 
report.  The  book  *is  distinctly  a  Kansas  book,  primarily  for  Kansans,  and 
is  the  result  of  experience  and  experiments  by  Kansas  men,  under  Kansas 
conditions,  in  the  field,  the  feed  lot  and  the  laboratory.  It  has  been  the  en- 
deavor to  combine,  as  a  whole,  the  views  and  ideas  of  both  the  scientific 
specialist  and  the  practical  farmer.  The  growers  themselves,  in  replying 
to  the  questionnaire  that  was  sent  them,  have  been  heavy  contributors  to 
this  work.  Their  replies,  which  have  been  painstakingly  analyzed,  di- 
gested and  summarized,  represent  essentially  the  point  of  view  of  the 
farmer  himself;  while  the  excellent  articles  by  experts  represent  more 
especially  the  scientific  point  of  view.  The  volume  is  presented  with  the 
sincere  hope  that  it  may  be  of  value  to  all,  but  particularly  to  the  Kansas 
farmer. 

The  Board's  investigation  and  report  thereof  was  conducted  and  made 
by  H.  W.  Doyle,  and  no  words  of  commendation  can  be  too  strong  in 
recognizing  his  intelligent  industry  in  that  connection,  as  well  as  in  the 
editing  of  the  entire  volume,  the  work  of  which  was  in  his  hands.  It  is 
also  a  pleasant  duty  to  acknowledge  with  hearty  thanks  the  friendly  and 
helpful  cooperation  of  the  staff  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College, 
and  of  the  hundreds  of  practical  farmers,  without  whom  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  make  such  a  book.  j  c  MOHLER>  Secretary. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


page 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas  (Investigation) 11 

From  Persia  to  Kansas 171 

Alfalfa  Varieties,  Breeding,  Seed,  and  Inoculation 180 

Practical  Drainage  of  Wet  Lands 216 

Liming  Soils  in  Kansas 224 

Alfalfa  Soils;  Their  Preparation  and  Seeding 230 

Scientific  Hay-making  and  Storage : 241 

A  Day's  Work  in  Haying 247 

Hay  Sheds 251 

Combination  Hay  and  FeedingSSheds 256 

A  Hay-curing  Barn 258 

Losses  in  Feeding  Value  and  a  Scheme  to  Prevent  Them 259 

Alfalfa  forlSilage 262 

A  Dairy  Farmer's  Estimate  of  Alfalfa  Silage '. 266 

Alfalfa  Seed  Production 267 

Alfalfa  in  Rows  for  Western  Kansas 271 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa 276 

AlfalfalMachinery 289 

A  Wagon  for  Hauling  Alfalfa  Hay 331 

Weeds  in  Alfalfa 332 

Plant  Diseases  Affecting  Alfalfa 339 

Mammals  in  Relation  to  Alfalfa 353 

Insects  Injurious  to  Alfalfa 367 

Bees  and  Their  Relation  to  Alfalfa 401 

The  Feeding  Constituents  of  Alfalfa 403 

Alfalfa  as  a  Feed  for  Beef  Cattle 410 

Alfalfa  as  a  Feed  for  Dairy  Cattle 415 

Alfalfa  as  a  Feed  for  Sheep : 417 

Acute  Bloating  of  the  Rumen 419 

Alfalfa  as  a  Feed  for  Hogs 423 

Alfalfa  as  a  Horse  and  Mule  Feed 428 

Alfalfa  as  a  Poultry  Feed 436 

Alfalfa  as  a  Human  Food 438 

The  Alfalfa  Milling  Industry 439 

The  Kansas  City  Hay  Market '. 447 

Marketing  Alfalfa  Hay  from  the  Buyer's  Standpoint 454 

Marketing  Alfalfa  Hay  from  the  Shipper's  Standpoint 457 

Measuring  Hay 461 

Alfalfa's  Effect  Upon  the  Soil 462 

Alfalfa's  Place  in  Farm  Management 469 

General  Index 473 

(9) 


ALFALFA   IN   KANSAS.1 

Compiled  and  edited  by  H.  W.  DOYLE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Alfalfa  is  Kansas'  greatest  forage  crop.  Kansas  raises  more  alfalfa 
than  any  other  state.  It  is  therefore  fitting  that  the  methods  of  our  best 
growers  be  investigated  and  that  the  information  thus  acquired  be  dis- 
seminated throughout  the  commonwealth.  To  this  end  the  State  Board 
of  Agriculture  sent  out  nearly  a  thousand  blanks,  each  containing  115 
questions,  to  prominent  alfalfa  growers  in  every  county  in  Kansas.  The 
replies  received  from  hundreds  of  these  growers  have  been  compiled  and 
analyzed,  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  on  all  the  points  and  phases  of 
the  culture  of  alfalfa  is  herewith  presented. 

AVERAGE   NUMBER   OF  ACRES  PER   GROWER. 

In  selecting  the  growers  to  which  blanks  were  mailed  an  effort  was 
made  to  address  those  having  the  larger  acreages.  The  reported  aver- 
age number  of  acres  per  grower,  taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  is  110. 
The  average  number  of  acres  per  grower  in  the  western  third  of  the  state 
is  143;  in  the  central  third,  115;  in  the  eastern  third,  99.  It  should  be 
distinctly  understood,  however,  that  these  average  acreages  are  only 
those  of  the  growers  reporting,  and  do  not  represent  the  average  num- 
ber of  acres  on  the  farms  of  Kansas  alfalfa  growers  in  general.  In  fact, 
the  average  number  of  acres  on  the  farms  of  Kansas  alfalfa  growers  in 
general  is  much  smaller  than  on  those  from  which  we  have  reports. 

YEARS  OF  EXPERIENCE. 

Taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  the  average  number  of  years  the  entire 
reporting  staff  has  been  growing  alfalfa  is  fifteen.  Four  of  the  growers 
reporting  have  been  growing  alfalfa  continuously  for  thirty-five  years, 
and  nine  other  reporters  have  been  growing  it  for  thirty  or  more  years. 
Forty-two  per  cent  of  the  growers  in  the  western  third  of  the  state  have 
been  growing  alfalfa  for  twenty  or  more  years,  39  per  cent  in  the  central 
third,  and  30  per  cent  in  the  eastern  third.  Taking  the  state  as  a  whole, 
36  per  cent  of  the  growers  have  been  growing  alfalfa  for  twenty  or  more 
years. 

FIRST    SEEDING   IN    KANSAS. 

Considerable  rivalry  was  in  evidence  among  pioneers  as  to  who  made 
the  first  sowing  of  alfalfa  in  Kansas.  The  following  is  the  best  informa- 
tion that  we  could  obtain : 

"In  the  winter  of  1868-'69  Mr.  Charles  J.  Grosse,  of  Marion,  Kan.,  re- 
ceived from  the  Trumble  Seed  House,  on  Sansom  street,  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  one  hundred  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed.  It  was  delivered  to  him 

,-  1.     Report  of  an  investigation  by  the  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriciflture. 

(H) 


12  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

at  Junction  City,  Kan.,  and  he  hauled  it  to  Marion  on  a  wagon.  He 
planted  ninety  pounds  of  seed  and  sold  ten  pounds  to  the  lately  deceased 
Charles  Molahan,  also  of  Marion.  Mr.  Molahan  had  wonderful  success 
with  his  planting,  and  it  was  from  the  Molahan  planting  that  Mr. 
Blackshere,  of  Chase  county,  got  his  idea  to  plant." 

*  *     * 

"In  the  spring  of  1869  Mr.  D.  B.  Long,  who  located  in  Ellsworth 
county,  section  12,  township  16,  range  8,  sent  to  San  Jose,  Cal.,  for 
alfalfa  seed,  which  he  planted  that  spring.  He  got  a  moderate  stand, 
and  the  plants  grew  large  and  coarse.  Not  knowing  that  alfalfa  re- 
quires frequent  cutting,  he  permitted  it  to  go  to  seed.  The  seed  was 
threshed,  but  as  Mr.  Long  did  not  realize  its  value  it  came  to  nothing. 
Because  the  gophers  worked  in  the  field  Mr.  Long  plowed  it  up." 

*  *     * 

"What  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  alfalfa  in  Atchison  county 
was  grown  by  Jasper  Olophant,  on  the  farm  now  occupied  by  his  son, 
William  E.  Olophant,  in  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  southeast  quarter 
of  section  24,  township  7,  range  21,  near  Oak  Mills,  in  Walnut  township. 
It  was  sown  more  than  forty  years  ago.  Mr.  Olophant  did  not  raise 
alfalfa  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  he  planted  it  as  an  experiment  and 
successfully  grew  a  small  patch.  He  was  the  first  man  to  demonstrate 
that  our  [Atchison  county]  soil  is  adapted  to  this  valuable  forage  crop." 

*  *     * 

This  item  appeared  under  date  of  January  20,  1909,  which  would  in- 
dicate that  Mr.  Olophant  made  his  sowing  in  1869. 


FIG.  1.     One  of  the  earlier  plantings  of  alfalfa  in  Norton  county,  the  field  of  J.  A. 
;  Gishwiller,  of  Almena.     Planted  in  1876;  photographed  in  1907. 

The  alfalfa  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  issued  in  1894 
contained  reports  from  growers  all  over  the  state.  In  that  report  James 
Herbin,  of  Jamestown,  Cloud  county,  said:  "I  have  had  twenty-four 
years'  experience  in  growing  alfalfa.  .  .  .  Alfalfa  attains  its  best 
yield  from  the  third  year  on,  until  the  tenth  or  twelfth;  but  it  will  con- 
tinue to  grow  for  twenty-five  years  or  more."  This  would  indicate  that 
Mr.  Herbin  grew  alfalfa  as  early  as  1870.  Three  others — J.  P.  Hall, 
Medicine  Lodge,  Barber  county;  J.  R.  Blackshere,  Elmdale,  Chase  county, 
and  Gust.  Anderson,  Lindsborg,  McPherson  county — report  having  had 
twenty  years'  experience  with  alfalfa,  which  would  make  their  sowings 
to  have  been  as  early  as  1875. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  13 

"It  was  either  in  1874  or  1875 — Mr.  Millar  does  not  remember  which — 
that  he  (G.  C.  Millar,  now  a  resident  of  Hutchinson,  Kan.)  and  J.  R. 
Blackshere  [evidently  the  same  person  above  mentioned],  who  owned  ad- 
joining farms,  located  in  section  11,  township  20,  range  8  east,  three 
miles  from  Cottonwood  Falls,  Chase  county,  chipped  in  and  sent  to  Idaho 
for  five  bushels  of  alfalfa  seed.  It  cost  them  something  like  $56  a 
bushel  laid  down  in  Cottonwood  Falls." 

*     *     * 

The  Barteldes  Seed  Company,  of  Lawrence,  Kan.,  reports  as  follows : 

"We  were  the  first  seed  house  to  introduce  alfalfa  in  Kansas.  I  think 
either  in  1875  or  1876  we  shipped  in  from  San  Francisco  some  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  the  seed  by  mail.  The  seed  was  worth  at  that  time  about 
one  dollar  a  pound.  The  next  year  we  made  some  small  local  shipments, 
by  express,  from  the  same  place.  The  next  two  years  we  bought  from 
Sacramento,  and  shipped  by  freight,  two  or  three  bags  at  a  time.  Later 
on  we  bought  from  Utah,  and  shipped  in  ten-  and  twenty-bag  lots,  by 
freight.  After  that  we  shipped  from  Colorado,  and  mostly  from  the 
Arkansas  valley.  I  remember  that  one  year  we  had  some  twenty  or 
thirty  carloads  from  this  valley.  This  amount  was  more  than  could  be 
used  here  and  we  exported  some  of  it  to  Germany.  I  can  not  tell  exactly 
in  what  year  we  commenced  to  handle  Kansas  seed,  but  think  that  we 
purchased  small  lots  in  Kansas  between  1880  and  1885.  At  that  time 
we  knew  of  none  handled  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  but  California 
handled  it  quite  largely,  though  mostly  for  home  consumption.  I  do 
not  know  who  has  the  oldest  field  in  Kansas,  but  I  think  Mr.  Blackshere, 
of  Elmdale,  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  largest  growers  of  alfalfa  hay 
and  alfalfa  seed."  (See  pages  171  to  179.) 

THE  OLDEST  FIELD   IN   KANSAS. 

An  effort  was  made  to  determine  the  oldest  field  of  alfalfa  now  in 
Kansas.  The  oldest  field  of  which  it  has  been  possible  to  gain  knowledge 
is  located  in  Marion  county,  and  is  the  planting  of  Mr.  John  A.  0. 
Lovania.  Mr.  Lovania  purchased  his  seed  in  1873,  in  Europe,  and  there 
is  alfalfa  on  the  same  ground  yet,  where  he  sowed  it.  This  would  make 
the  field  to  be  43  years  of  age.  The  'information  was  volunteered  by  Mr. 
Charles  J.  Grosse,  of  Marion,  Kan.  Mr.  John  H.  Rich,  of  Coolidge, 
Hamilton  county,  reports  as  follows:  "There  is  a  field  one-half  mile  east 
of  Coolidge  that  was  planted  by  one  Joe  Borders  in  1882."  Mr.  George 
Yoxall,  of  Stockton,  Rooks  county,  reports:  "I  have  some  good  alfalfa 
planted  in  1883."  This  would  make  these  fields  to  be  34  and  33  years  of 
age,  respectively.  Three  fields  were  reported  to  be  30  years  old,  four  28 
years  old,  two  27  years  old,  seven  25  years  old,  one  24  years  old,  and  two 
22  years  old.  Most  of  these  older  stands  are  located  in  the  western  third 
of  the  state. 

PROFITABLE  LENGTH   OF  LIFE. 

The  average  profitable  length  of  life  of  an  alfalfa  field  is,  according 
to  reports  received,  about  12  years.  In  the  eastern  third  of  the  state 
it  is  estimated  at  10  years,  in  the  central  third  at  12  years,  and  in 
the  western  third  at  15  years.  The  indications  are  that  alfalfa  on  bottom 
land  lives  much  longer  than  that  on  upland.  The  average  of  the  reports 
on  this  point  show  the  usual  life  of  alfalfa  on  bottom  land  to  be  14  years 
and  that  on  upland  to  be  6  years. 


14 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  2.     A  sturdy  old  alfalfa  plant,  showing  development  possible  from  a  single  seed. 
Such  plants  are  found  in  the  older  fields. —  [Courtesy  Iowa  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  15 

VARIETIES. 

Most  reporters  have  had  no  experience  with  any  varieties  of  alfalfa 

other  than  the  ordinary  or  common  variety,  Medicago  sativa  L.  Here  and 

there  was  found  a  man  who  had  tried  the  Turkestan  variety.  However, 

the  replies  indicate  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  value. 
Following  are  some  favorable  reports: 

Cowley  county:  "We  have  seeded  Turkestan  on  light  sandy  soil  and 
have  succeeded  with  it  where  the  other  failed." 

Hodgeman  county:  "Turkestan  thickened,  stood  wind  and  cold  in  ex- 
posed places,  matured,  and  seeded." 

Jackson  county:  "My  experience  with  Turkestan  has  been  good." 

Sherman  county:  "I  have  four  acres  of  Turkestan.  It  grows  rank — 
3V2  to  4  feet." 

Here  are  some  unfavorable  reports: 

Atchison  county:  "Turkestan  in  neighboring  fields  is  about  half  as 
good  as  the  ordinary  variety." 

Wilson  county:  "I  have  had  some  experience  with  Turkestan,  but  it 
was  not  satisfactory;  it  did  not  make  a  good  growth." 

Montgomery  county:  "Common  alfalfa  is  best.    Don't  like  Turkestan." 
Sheridan  county:   "Turkestan  did  not  survive  a  bad  year." 

Trego  county:  "Turkestan  and  common  alfalfa  were  planted  side 
by  side.  The  Turkestan  was  no  good.  The  first  cutting  yielded  about 
50  per  cent  as  much  as  the  common  variety  and  later  cuttings  yielded 
nothing  at  all." 

Wichita  county:  "I  have  had  experience  in  a  small  way  with  Turkes- 
tan. It  is  no  better  than  the  ordinary  variety." 

One  grower,  who  lives  in  Lyon  county,  said:  "I  sowed  200  acres  of 
alfalfa,  one-half  with  home-raised  seed  and  one-half  with  German  seed. 
The  German  seed  made  the  best  growth." 

A  prominent  Wabaunsee  county  alfalfa  grower  offers  the  following: 
"Some  years  ago  we  planted  about  twenty  acres  of  alfalfa  with  foreign 
seed.  This  seed  was  of  a  remarkably  hardy  character.  The  first  winter 
after  it  was  seeded  was  an  extremely  trying  one  on  alfalfa,  and  did  con- 
siderable damage  to  native  plants,  while  the  plants  from  the  foreign  seed 
remained  unharmed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plants  from  the  foreign 
seed  grow  closer  to  the  ground  but  not  nearly  so  tall,  and  yield  much  less 
hay  in  an  ordinary  year.  During  very  dry  periods  the  third  and  fourth 
crops  from  the  foreign  seed  are  hardly  worth  cutting,  while  our  native 
seed  gives  a  reasonably  good  crop.  I  certainly  would  not  recommend  the 
foreign  seed  for  a  hay  crop,  but  it  might  be  very  good  as  hog  pasture." 

It  would  appear  that  while  some  foreign-grown  varieties  of  alfalfa 
might  prove  valuable  in  this  state,  they  have  thus  far  failed  to  win  wide- 
spread recognition  among  Kansas  farmers.  (See  pages  180  to  205.) 

NUMBER   OF    CUTTINGS. 

The  number  of  cuttings  of  alfalfa  in  Kansas  varies  from  four  and 
one-half  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  state  to  three  cuttings  in  the 
western  one-fourth.  In  counties  representing  about  72  per  cent  of  the 
state's  alfalfa  acreage,  located  mostly  in  the  eastern  third  and  south- 


16  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

central  parts,  the  average  number  of  cuttings  is  four.  Eighteen  counties 
in  the  north-central  part  of  the  state,  representing  20  per  cent  of  the 
total  acreage,  average  three  and  one-half  cuttings.  It  may  be  stated,  in 
a  general  way,  that  the  average  number  of  cuttings  of  alfalfa  hay  in 
Kansas  is  four.  However,  in  favorable  years  or  in  specially  favored 
locations  the  average  number  of  cuttings  as  reported  may  be  exceeded. 
On  the  other  hand,  certain  conditions  may  in  some  instances  cause  the 
number  to  fall  below  the  average.  Figure  10  and  the  table  on  page  19 
give  more  specific  information  about  the  number  of  cuttings. 

TOTAL  YIELDS. 

Yields  vary  from  year  to  year  and  from  place  to  place.  ,  Soil,  climate 
and  altitude  have  far-reaching  effects.  The  average  yearly  yield  of 
alfalfa  in  Kansas  is  3.72  tons  per  acre.  The  average  yield  in  the  eastern 
third  of  the  state  is  3.95  tons,  in  the  central  third  3.60  tons,  and  in  the 
western  third  3.17  tons  per  acre.  The  apparently  high  yield  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state  is  accounted  for  in  the  fact  that  nearly  all  of 
the  alfalfa  grown  there  is  grown  in  valleys,  where  the  water  table  is 
near  to  the  surface  and  a  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  is  had,  and  in 
the  fact  that  practically  all  of  the  state's  irrigated  alfalfa  is  found 
there.  A  study  of  the  data  at  hand  reveals  the  information  that  counties 
through  which  the  Arkansas  river  flows  uniformly  show  higher  yields 
than  the  counties  adjoining.  The  same  thing  is  true,  in  a  measure,  with 
counties  along  the  other  important  streams. 

Forty-three  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  acreage  is  found  in  the  eastern 
third  of  the  state,  or  584,371  acres;  49.6  per  cent,  or  674,387  acres,  in 
the  central  third ;  and  7.4  per  cent,  or  100,699  acres,  in  the  western  third. 
The  state's  total  acreage  is  1,359,457.  Applying  the  above  average  yields 
to  these  acreages,  we  have  a  production  of  319,215  tons  in  the  western 
third,  of  2,427,793  tons  in  the  central  third,  and  of  2,308,265  tons  in  the 
eastern  third,  representing  6.30,  48.01  and  45.64  per  cent,  respectively,  of 
the  total  aggregate  annual  yield  of  5,057,180  tons. 

YIELDS  BY  CUTTINGS. 

The  average  yield  of  the  first  cutting,  for  the  state,  is  1.25  tons.  It 
varies  from  .9  of  a  ton  in  some  of  the  western  counties  to  1.5  tons  in 
some  of  the  eastern  counties.  However,  the  yield  is  remarkably  uniform 
throughout  the  state,  gradually  shading  from  1.3  tons  in  the  eastern  part 
to  about  1.1  in  the  western  part.  The  second  cutting  yields  from  .7  of  a 
ton  in  an  extreme  western  county  to  1.2  tons  in  the  east,  averaging  .98  of  a 
ton  for  the  state  as  a  whole.  The  third  cutting  averages  .82  of  a  ton, 
the  fourth  cutting  .63  of  a  ton,  and  the  fifth  cutting  .53  of  a  ton. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


17 


18 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


19 


TABLE  No.  1.     Average  number  of  cuttings,  average  yield  per  acre  of  the  different  cuttings,  and 
total  average  yield  per  acre,  by  counties. 


COUNTIES. 

Average 
No.  of 

cuttings. 

Average  yield  in  tons. 

First 
cutting. 

Second 
cutting. 

Third 
cutting. 

Fourth 
cutting. 

Fifth 
cutting. 

Total  for 
year. 

The  State  

Allen  
Anderson  
Atchison 

4 

4 

4 
4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4^ 

i* 

4 
4 
3% 

4 
4 
4 
4^ 
3 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

3^ 
3M 
4 
4 
4 

4 
3 
3^ 

4 

3 
4 
3 
4 
4 

3 

3^ 

3K 

4 
3 
4 
3^ 
4^ 

3^ 
4 
3M 

3 

3^ 
3^ 

1.25 

.98 

.82 

.63 

.53 

'  "4" 
.3 

3.72 

1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.2 

1.2 

1.3 
1.4 
1.2 
1.2 
1.0 

1.3 
1.1 
1.2 
1.2 
1.2 

.3 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.1 

.2 
.5 
.3 

.2 
.3 

.1 
.2 

.2 
.2 
.3 

1.3 
1.1 
1.1 
•  1.1 
1.2 

1.1 
1.3 
1.0 
1.2 
1.2 

1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 

1.3 
1.0 
1.2 
1.0 
1.3 

1.0 
1.5 
1.2 
1.3 
1.2 

1.3 
1.2 
1.4 
1.2 
1.2 

1.2 
1.2 
1.0 
.8 
1.0 

1.0 
1.0 
.9 
.9 
1.0 

.9 
.9 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 

1.1 
.9 
.9 
1.1 
1.0 

1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

.9 
.9 
1.0 
1.0 
1.1 

1.2 
1.0 
.9 
1.0 
1.0 

.9 
.9 
.8 
1.0 
.9 

1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 

1.0 
1.0 
.9 
1.0 
.9 

.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.2 
1.0 

1.1 
.9 
1.0 
.9 
1.0 

1.0 
1.0 
.9 
.6 

.8 

.9 
.9 

.7 
.7 
.9 

.9 

.7 
.7 
.7 
.7 

.9 
.7 
.9 
.9 
.8 

.9 
.9 
.9 
.8 
.9 

.7 
.7 
.8 
.8 
.9 

.9 

.7 
.7 
.7 
.9 

.8 
.9 

.7 
.7 
.7 

.9 

.7 
.9 
.9 
.8 

.9 

.8 

.7 
.7 
.8 

.8 
.9 
.8 
1.0 

.8 

1.0 

.7 
.8 
.8 

.7 

.7 
.7 
.6 
.8 
.6 

.7 
.6 

.7 
.8 

.7 

.7 

"!«" 

.6 
.5 

.7 
.6 
.6 

.7 

.6 
.6 

.7 
.5 

.7 

.5 
.5 

.7 
.6 

.7 

.6 

"  .5 
.5 
.6 

"is" 
"ie" 

.6 

"5" 

.7 
.7 
.5 

.8 

"e" 

.5 

•      .7 

.5 

.7 
.5 

-.7 

.7 
.6 
.6 
.6 
.6 

4.2 
4.2. 
3.8 
3.4 
3.6 

3.9 
3.9 
3.5 
3.6 
4.0 

4.1 
2.7 
3.5 
3.5 
3.4 

4.0 
3.3 
3.6 
4.5 
2.9 

3.9 
4.2 
4.0 
3.5 
3.9 

3.2 
3.3 
3.7 
3.6 

4.0 

4.0 
2.8 
3.2 
3.3 
3.7 

2.8 
3.9 
2.5 
3.5 
3.4 

3.0 
3.3 
4.0 
4.0 
3.7 

4.0 
2.8 
3.4 
3.2 

4.2 

3.2 
4.3 
3.6 
4.2 
3.0 

4.1 
3.4 
3.8 
3.5 
3.5 

Barber  

Brown  
Butler  
Chase 

Chautauqua  
Cherokee  

Cheyenne  
Clark  

Clay  
Cloud  

Coffey 

Comanche  
Cowley 

'  "5" 

Crawford  
Decatur 

Dickinson  

Douglas  
Edwards 

Elk.  

Ellis  
Ellsworth 

Finney  
Ford 

Franklin  

Geary  
Gove  
Graham  
Grant  
Gray 

Greeley  
Greenwood  
Hamilton  
Harper  
Harvey 

Haskell  
Hodgeman  
Jackson  
Jefferson  

Jewell  

Johnson  :  
Kearny 

"is" 

Kingman  
Kiowa 

Labette  
Lane 

Leavenworth  
Lincoln 

Linn  
Logan  

Lyon  
Marion 

Marshall  
McPherson 

Meade  .  . 

20 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

TABLE  No.  1 — CONCLUDED. 


COUNTIES. 

Average 
No.  of 
cuttings. 

Average  yield  in  tons. 

First 
cutting. 

Second 
cutting. 

Third 
cutting. 

Fourth 
cutting. 

Fifth 
cutting. 

Total  for 
year. 

Miami 

4 
3^ 
4H 
4 
4 

4 
41A 

3H 
3^ 
4 

3^ 
3^ 

3H 
3 

J« 

4 
3H 
3H 
3M 

3 

4 

1.3 
1.2 
1.1 
1.2 
1.1 

1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
1.2 

1.3 

1.2 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 

1.2 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1-1 

1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 

1.1 
1.5 

"i!3' 
1.1 

1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
.9 

1.0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.1 
.9 

1.0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.1 

1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.1 

.9 
.9 
.9 
1.0 
1.0 

1.1 
.9 
1.0 
.9 
1.0 

1.0 
1.0 
----- 
1.0 

.9 
1.1 
.9 

..7 

.9 
.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.0 

1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.1 

1.2 

.9 
.8 
.9 
1.0 

.7 

.7 
.9 
.8 
.8 
1.0 

.7 
.7 
.9 
.8 
1.0 

.7 
.8 
.8 
.7 
.9 

1.0 

.7 
.8 
.7 
.7 

.8 
.8 

.8 
.5 
.7 
.7 
.5 

.6 

.7 
.5 

.4 

.7 

.5 
.5 
.6 
.5 
.6 

.6 

"  .'  8  " 
.6 

.7 

.6 
.5 
.5 
.6 
.5 

4.0 
3.6 
4.2 
4.0 
3.2 

3.6 
4.5 
3.3 
3.4 
4.1 

3.5 
3.4 
3.8 
3.7 
4.0 

3.4 
2.8 
3.8 
3.6 
3.7 

3.9 
3.2 
3.4 
3.3 
3.4 

2.9 
4.0 

Mitchell 

Montgomery  

.5 
"  .5 

Morris              .  .                .... 

Nemaha            ... 

Neosho  

Ness  

Osage 

Ottawa  

Phillips  

Pottawatomie  .            .        ... 

Pratt        

Reno      

Republic  
Rice   

Riley                                   .    .  . 

Rooks  

Rush                               .        ... 

Russell 

Saline                     

Scott 

Sedgwick                       

.7 

Shawnee 

4 
3 

3 

3H 
3^ 
2 

1.0 

.7 

.7 
.8 
.8 

.7 

4.2 

2.8 

2.7 
3.7 
3.5 
1.6 

Sheridan 

Smith 

.5 
.5 

Stafford 

4 
3 

9* 

3 

7* 

4 
4 
4 

1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.1 

1.3 
1.1 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 

.9 
.8 
.7 
1.0 

.7 

.8 
.8 
.9 
.8 
1.0 

.6 

3.6 
2.8 
3.2 
3.9 

2.8 

3.7 
2.9 
4.1 
4.0 
4.3 

Trego 

.4 
.6 

Wallace 

Washington  

.6 

Wilson 

.7 
.7 
.8 

Woodson                        

Wyandotte  

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


21 


22 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIGURES  AVERAGE;  NOT  ARBITRARY. 

There  is  an  apparent  contradiction  in  the  yields  as  compared  with  the 
number  of  cuttings.  For  instance,  take  those  counties  having  three  and 
one-half  cuttings.  This  means  that  during  about  half  the  time  three 
cuttings  are  had  and  during  the  rest  of  the  time  four  cuttings,  making 
an  average  of  three  and  one-half  cuttings.  Of  course  a  man  can  not 
really  have  three  and  one-half  cuttings.  He  must  have  either  three  cut- 
tings or  four  cuttings;  and  in  showing  averages  there  are  bound  to  be 
figures  that  seem  not  to  "jibe."  Therefore,  in  Table  No.  1,  page  19,  in 
the  case  of  those  counties  shown  as  having  four  and  one-half  cuttings, 
the  estimated  yield  of  the  "one-half"  is  expressed  in  the  column  of  yields 
labeled  "Fifth  cutting,"  and  in  the  case  of  three  and  one-half  cuttings 
the  "one-half"  is  in  a  similar  manner  shown  under  the  head  labeled 
"Fourth  cutting."  These  irregularities  are  unavoidable  and  are  caused 
solely  by  the  difficulty  in  showing  averages  for  the  state  or  portions  of 
the  state. 

CLIMATE  AND  LOCATION. 

An  accompanying  outline  map  (Fig  10)  shows  the  approximate  num- 
ber of  cuttings  of  alfalfa  as  applied  to  the  different  parts  of  the  state. 
This  map  is  very  striking  when  compared  with  maps  having  reference 
to  the  climate.  Particularly  is  this  true  in  regard  to  the  map  (Fig.  5) 
showing  the  average  annual  precipitation  (rainfall,  snow,  etc.).  It  is 
surprising  indeed  to  learn  that  the  precipitation  in  three  of  the  south- 
eastern counties  averages  from  40  to  more  than  44  inches,  while  in 
Hamilton  county,  at  the  extreme  western  end  of  the  state,  it  averages 
barely  more  than  15  inches,  or  practically  one-third  as  much  as  it  does 
in  Cherokee  county,  with  her  44.11  inches.  In  fact,  the  amount  of  pre- 
cipitation gradually  and  rapidly  diminishes  from  the  eastern  to  the 
western  line  of  the  state,  in  a  manner  noticeably  similar  to  the  gradua- 
tion of  average  yields. 

TABLE  No.  2.     Precipitation  in  Kansas.     (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.) 


• 

Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
inches. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
inches. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
inches. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
inches. 

19  20 

26  12 

35.05 

27.58 

Precipitation   during   growing  season,   April   to 
September,  inclusive.  

16.84 

24.44 

25.97 

21.86 

The  above-shown  variations  have  a  very  great  effect  on  the  number 
of  cuttings  and  the  yield  of  alfalfa. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


23 


FIG.  6.    The  average  length  of  the  growing  season,  in  days,  from  the  records  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

The  length  of  the  growing  season  gradually  diminishes  as  one  pro- 
gresses from  the  southeast  corner  of  the  state  diagonally  toward  the 
northwest  corner.  The  range  is  from  199  days  down  to  147  days,  de- 
pending on  the  dates  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  the  spring  and  the  first 
killing  frost  in  the  fall,  and  representing  a  difference  of  52  days,  or 
about  1V2  weeks.  This  difference  is  occasioned  by  altitude  as  well  as 
longitude.  The  altitude  gradually  increases  from  1000  feet  on  the  east 
line  to  more  than  3500  feet  on  the  west  line. 

Another  factor  that  has  considerable  bearing  on  the  yield  is  the  number 
of  clear  days.  The  average  number  of  clear  days  in  a  year  in  the  east- 
ern third  of  the  state  is  174,  in  the  central  third  185,  and  in  the  western 
third  196.  Clear  days  mean  sunshine,  and  alfalfa  likes  sunshine. 


FTO.  7.     The  altitude  of  Kansas,  in  feet. 
[After  Borman,  in  "Sorghums — Sure  Money  Crops."] 


24 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


25 


Maps  showing  the  average  annual  precipitation,  the  average  number 
of  growing  days,  the  average  dates  of  killing  frosts,  the  altitude,  and  the 
average  number  of  clear  days  may  be  found  on  other  pages  (Figs  5,  6, 
7,  8  and  9).  A  study  of  them  will  help  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
relation  of  the  number  of  cuttings  and  the  average  yields  to  the  climate 
and  the  altitude.  (See  pages  231  to  234.) 


Fia.  9.   The  average  number  of  clear  days  in  a  year,  from  the  records  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

DATES  OF  CUTTINGS. 

The  maps  on  pages  26  and  27  illustrate  the  average  dates  on  which 
the  different  cuttings  are  made  in  the  different  parts  of  the  state.  The 
first  cutting  in  the  season  usually  starts  about  May  15  in  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  state,  and  as  one  progresses  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
the  date  of  cutting  becomes  later,  through  May  23,  27  and  30,  until  in 
the  northwestern  corner  the  average  date  of  the  first  cutting  is  about 
June  7.  The  dates  of  the  second  cutting  vary  from  June  24  in  the  south- 
east to  July  10  in  the  northwest ;  those  of  the  third  cutting  from  August 
1  to  August  23;  the  fourth  cutting  from  September  8  in  the  southeast 
corner  to  September  24  in  the  west-north-central  portion;  and  the  fifth 
cutting,  which  is  had,  as  a  rule,  only  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
state,  is  made  about  October  19.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  alfalfa  is 
being  cut  somewhere  in  the  state  throughout  the  growing  season,  from 
the  middle  of  April  to  the  third  week  in  October. 


26 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  10.    The  average  number  of  cuttings. 


FIG.  11.   Average  dates  of  first  cutting. 


FIG.  12.    Average  dates  of  second  cutting. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


27 


Fia.  13.   Average  dates  of  third  cutting. 


FIG.  14.    Average  dates  of  fourth  cutting. 


Fia.  15.   Average  date  of  fifth  cutting. 


28 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


While  the  lines  on  the  maps  make  it  appear  that  the  boundaries  of  these 
regions  are  sharply  defined,  such  is  not  the  case.  The  progression  is 
(gradual  and  varies  greatly  in  accordance  with  local  conditions.  Dates 
in  the  same  locality  will  also  vary  widely  from  year  to  year.  Those 
given  are  average  dates  for  average  years. 


PIG.  16.  Alfalfa  roots  penetrating  six  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  ideal  alfalfa  soil  readily  admits  such  root  penetration. —  [Courtesy 
John  Deere  &  Co.] 

SOILS. 

An  effort  was  made  to  learn  the  character  of  soil  best  suited  to  alfalfa. 
Alluvial  bottom  land  is  much  preferred  throughout  the  state,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  western  third,  where  it  is  very  hard  indeed  to  grow 
alfalfa  on  upland  in  paying  crops.  The  texture  of  the  soil  in  which  al- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  29 

falfa  is  grown  ranges  all  the  way  from  clay,  through  silt  and  gumbo, 
into  sandy  loams.  The  subsoil  may  be  of  a  gravelly  nature,  a  compara- 
tively stiff  clay,  or  of  any  of  the  intervening  grades.  In  fact,  we  find 
alfalfa  growing  in  almost  every  kind  of  soil  in  the  state,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success.  It  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way,  that  the  types  of 
soil  found  in  the  counties  having  the  larger  acreages  are  the  best  types 
of  alfalfa  soil  we  have. 

The  ideal  alfalfa  soil  is  fertile,  full  of  humus,  strong  in  lime,  and  in 
first-class  mechanical  condition — friable  and  mellow.  The  subsoil  should 
be  of  a  nature  to  admit  the  penetration  of  alfalfa  roots  and  the  free  up- 
ward and  downward  percolation  of  water;  it  should  be  deep  and  well 
drained.  Alfalfa  will  not  stand  wet  feet,  and  the  water  table  should  not 
come  nearer  than  five  or  six  feet  of  the  surface  to  secure  the  best  results. 
A  more  extended  discussion  of  alfalfa  soils  may  be  found  on  pages  230 
to  241. 


FIG.  17.  An  alfalfa  field  on  an  upland  farm,  in  Cherokee  county,  three  years  after 
seeding.  This  excellent  stand  was  secured  by  manuring,  liming  and  underdraining 
the  field. —  [Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

That  wet,  sour  soils  may  be  corrected  and  made  to  grow  paying  crops 
of  alfalfa  has  been  brought  out  in  this  investigation.  Returns  indicate 
that  the  soils  requiring  such  treatment  are  located  chiefly  in  the  south- 
eastern corner  of  the  state,  where  rainfall  is  heavy  and  natural  drainage 
often  poor.  The  methods  of  correction  usually  include  draining,  liming 
and  manuring. 

SOIL  DRAINAGE. 

Two  methods  of  drainage  were  reported — tile  and  open  ditches.  Not 
a  few  growers  report  that  surface  ditches— modified  dead  furrows— are 
satisfactory.  However,  in  no  instance  has  there  been  an  unfavorable 
report- from  those  who  have  tried  tile  drainage,  and  most  reporters  are 


30 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


even  enthusiastic  about  results.    Some  typical  testimonials  for  tile  drain- 
age follow: 

Osage  county:  "I  have  a  piece  of  heavy,  black  bottom  land  that 
was  too  wet  for  alfalfa  or  most  any  crop,  except  in  a  very  dry  year. 
Since  tiling  alfalfa  does  fine." 

Neosho  county:  "I  have  used  three  and  one-half  carloads  of  tile  on 
wet  land,  which  now  grows  alfalfa  or  any  other  crop." 

Labette  county:  "We  are  successfully  growing  alfalfa  on  water-oak 
land  that  has  been  reclaimed  by  tile  drainage." 

Allen  county:  "I  have  tiled  some  bottom  land  next  to  a  bluff,  using 
four-,  five-,  six-  and  eight-inch  tile,  and  have  been  very  successful." 

Crawford  county:  "Our  alfalfa  is  on  drained  land,  except  twenty 
acres,  which  is  underlaid  with  a  sandy  subsoil.  It  is  a  perfect  success 
where  the  top  soil  is  over  two  feet  thick." 

Crawford  county:  "To-night  the  creek  is  all  over  everything.  In  four 
or  five  days  of  good  drying  weather  I  can  cultivate.  Were  it  not  for  tile, 
sixty  acres  of  my  farm  would  this  year  be  unplanted." 

Frequently  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  alfalfa  roots  fill  and 
choke  drain  tile.  Not  a  single  report  complaining  of  this  trouble  was 
received.  However,  one  report,  which  may  or  may  not  have  bearing  on 
the  subject,  reads: 

"I  have  several  thousand  feet  of  drain  tile  in  use.    It  has  been  my  ex- 


FIG.  18.    A  modern  limestone  grinding  plant. —  [Courtesy  New  York  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


31 


perience  that  after  the  first  year  the  alfalfa  itself  is  superior  to  tile  as  a 
drain  in  deep  soil;  but,  in  my  judgment,  shallow  soil  should  all  be  tiled." 
(See  pages  216  to  224.) 

SOIL  ACIDITY. 

Pale,  sickly  and  dying  plants  often  indicate  an  acid  soil — a  sour  soil, 
a  soil  deficient  in  lime.  Constantly  wet  soils  are  nearly  always  sour. 
There  are  sour  soils,  however,  that  are  not  wet.  The  usual  method  of 
testing  for  soil  acidity  (see  page  237)  is  as  follows:  With  a  spade, 
trowel  or  other  implement,  make  an  opening  in  the  soil.  Insert  a  piece 
of  blue  litmus  paper,  obtainable  at  any  drug  store,  and  press  the  soil 
firmly  against  it.  In  ten  minutes  carefully  remove  the  paper.  If  it  has 
turned  red,  or  if  red  spots  appear  on  it,  the  soil  is  acid  and  needs  an 
application  of  lime,  and  sometimes  manure  as  well,  to  correct  this  acidity 
and  to  make  it  sweet  and  productive — a  condition  necessary  for  success- 
ful alfalfa  growing.  The  litmus  paper  needs  to  be  carefully  handled,  as 
the  perspiration  on  a  person's  fingers  very  often  reddens  the  paper. 


1 


FIG.  19.  There  are  few  Kansas  regions  in  which  limestone  may  not  be  had  within  hauling 
distance,  and  farmers  will  do  well  to  look  into  the  cooperative  purchase  of  portable  lime  pul- 
verizers.—  [Courtesy  Power  Farming.} 


32  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

LIMING. 

The  counties  where  liming  has  been  found  necessary  and  most  often 
tried  with  success  are  located  chiefly  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
state.  Here  are  some  reports  of  successful  liming: 

Allen  county:  "I  have  used  raw  crushed  limestone  on  shale  upland  at 
the  rate  of  three  tons  per  acre,  in  addition  to  good  manure  at  the  rate  of 
eight  tons  per  acre." 

Bourbon  county:  "I  applied  ground  limestone  at  the  rate  of  two  tons 
per  acre,  sowing  with  an  end-gate  seeder." 

Cowley  county:  "I  have  applied  ground  limestone  with  a  manure 
spreader  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  tons  to  the  acre.  I  think  it  is  bene- 
ficial, increasing  the  yield." 

Labette  county:  "It  takes  from  four  to  five  years  to  reclaim  water- 
oak  land  by  applications  of  lime  and  manure.  We  have  successfully  used 
both  air-slaked  lime  and  ground  limestone.  We  prefer  the  latter  on  ac- 
count of  the  cost.  We  use  one  and  one-half  tons  per  acre,  applied  with  a 
lime  spreader,  or  on  top  of  manure  with  a  manure  spreader." 

Labette  county:  "Sour  soil  needs  lime,  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  per 
acre,  or  more,  applied  with  a  spreader." 

Montgomery  county:  "We  have  used  60,000  pounds  of  crushed  native 
limestone,  scattered  by  putting  about  three  inches  on  top  of  each  spreader 
load  of  manure." 

On  the  other  hand,  some  growers  report  that,  seemingly,  no  particu- 
lar benefits  resulted  from  the  application  of  lime.  Whether,  in  these  in- 
stances, the  soil  really  needed  lime,  whether  lime  was  applied  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  meet  the  need,  whether  the  right  form  and  quality  of 
lime  was  properly  applied,  or  whether  the  land  needed  more  thorough 
drainage  or  manuring,  we  can  not  say;  but  certainly  it  would  seem  that 
there  was  some  irregularity  about  its  application.  The  reports  follow: 

Nemaha  county :  "  I  have  applied  ground  limestone  on  trial  plots,  but 
this  soil  does  not  need  it." 

Harvey  county:  "I  have  applied  crushed  limestone  with  no  particular 
benefit." 

Jackson  county:  "I  don't  think  our  soil  is  sour  to  hurt.  Some  of  my 
neighbors  have  applied  ground  lime  to  alfalfa,  and  I  can  see  no  effect." 

Bourbon  county:  "I  put  four  tons  on  two  acres  of  wet  land  (water- 
oak  soil)  two  years  ago.  There  is  no  difference  that  I  can  see,  as  yet." 

Wilson  county:  "I  have  used  some  lime  or  land  plaster  on  a  demonstra- 
tion plot,  but  with  very  poor  results.  I  used  one  ton  per  acre,  applied 
by  hand." 

The  following  theory  about  the  correction  of  sour  soil  is  self-explana- 
tory: 

Crawford  county:  "Our  sour  land  was  sweetened  by  drainage.  I 
don't  believe  any  amount  of  lime  would  do  good  if  the  surplus  water  were 
not  taken  from  the  soil." 

Ground  limestone  is  the  most  popular  and  apparently  the  most  eco- 
nomical form  of  lime  to  apply.  The  rate  of  application  depends  some- 
what upon  the  degree  of  acidity,  varying  from  one  and  one-half  to  three 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


33 


34 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


tons  per  acre,  averaging  about  two  tons.  It  may  be  applied,  after  plow- 
mg,  with  a  regular  lime  spreader;  with  a  manure  spreader,  by  placing  it 
on  top  of  the  manure;  or  by  hand.  It  is  best  applied  six  months  to  a  year 
previous  to  the  seeding  of  alfalfa. 

A  list  of  firms  selling  ground  limestone. 

Western  Crushed  Rock  and  Concrete  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Marblehead  Lime  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Fort  Scott  Hydraulic  Cement  Co.,  Fort  Scott,  Kan 

Monarch  Cement  Co.,  Humboldt,  Kan. 

Superior  Marble  &  Limestone  Co.,  Carthage,  Mo 

Carthage  Limestone  Co.,  Carthage,  Mo. 

Fredonia  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Fredonia    Kan 

J.  F.  Byers,  Chanute,  Kan. 

Hood  Implement  Co.,  McCune,  Kan. 

Frazer  Stone  Quarry,  El  Dorado,  Kan. 

The  average  price  of  ground  limestone,  as  reported,  is  from  $1.50  to 
$2  per  ton,  f .  o.  b.  cars  at  shipping  point. 


FIG.  21.    Spreading  lime  with  a  distributor. —  [Courtesy  Power  Farming.] 

A  man  in  Anderson  county  reports  as  follows:  "Our  county  owns  a 
crusher  and  loans  it  without  charge,  except  for  the  cost  of  fuel  for  the 
engine,  and  repairs."  This  suggests  the  possibility  of  cooperation  in  the 
purchase  of  portable  lime  pulverizers,  the  advertisements  of  which  may 
be  found  in  almost  any  of  our  agricultural  papers.  There  are  few  regions 
in  which  limestone  may  not  be  had  within  hauling  distance,  and  groups 
of  farmers  in  need  of  ground  limestone  will  do  well  to  look  into  this 
matter.  (See  pages  224  to  230  and  237.) 

PRECEDING  CROP. 

Correspondents  were  asked  about  their  preference  in  regard  to  the 
crop  preceding  alfalfa.  Where  spring  sowing  is  practiced,  corn,  wheat 
and  oats,  in  the  order  named,  are  far  in  the  lead  in  popularity,  corn 
being  considerably  ahead  of  all  the  rest.  In  the  case  of  fall  sowing,  wheat 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


35 


and  oats  are  preferred,  with  millet  and  summer  fallowing  strictly  in  the 
minority.  Of  course  there  are  other  miscellaneous  and  scattering  crops 
for  which  preference  was  expressed,  but  these  crops  stood  out  from  all 
others. 

In  response  to  the  request  for  a  reason  for  the  expressed  preference, 
three  principal  objects  seemed  to  influence  the  selection,  viz.:  to  keep 
down  weeds;  to  leave  the  future  seed  bed  in  a  firm  condition;  and  to 
make  plowing  convenient  at  the  proper  time.  These  reasons  were  given 
by  growers  preferring  corn,  as  well  as  by  those  preferring  wheat  or  oats 
or  millet,  or  summer  fallowing.  A  grower  would  give  one  reason  or 
another  as  his  preference  for  this  or  that  crop,  and  no  particular  reason 
was  generally  applied  to  any  particular  crop.  No  crop  seemed  to  be 
unanimously  preferred  in  any  particular  section. 


FIG.  22.    Spreading  lime  by  hand. — [Courtesy  Farmers  Mail  and  Breeze.] 


FiO.  23.    Disking-in  ground  limestone. —  [Courtesy  Delaware  Experiment   Station.] 


36 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FERTILIZING. 

Alfalfa  requires  a  fertile  soil,  and  where  fertilization  is  found  neces- 
sary in  Kansas  barnyard  manure  is  used  almost  exclusively.  The  little 
commercial  fertilizer  that  is  used  is  used  in  the  southeastern  corner  of 
the  state,  where  on  the  uplands  there  is  often  a  shortage  of  phosphorus. 
Manure  is  best  applied  with  a  spreader,  a  year  previous  to  seeding.  The 
amount  applied  varies  somewhat  with  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the 
climate.  About  ten  or  twelve  tons  per  acre  seems  to  be  the  average.  In 
the  western  part  of  the  state  the  amount  is  given  at  about  eight  tons,  be- 
cause in  that  dry  climate  it  does  not  decay  so  readily  and  has  a  tendency 
to  fire  and  burn  and  to  admit  of  too  thorough  an  aeration  of  the  soil. 

A  report  from  Wilson  county  in  regard  to  fertilization  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "I  have  used  a  great  deal  of  manure  and  find  it  very  beneficial, 
but  have  watched  alfalfa  seedings  after  cowpeas,  and  think  cowpeas  the 
very  best  kind  of  fertilizer."  (See  pages  238  to  241.) 


FIG.  24.    Manure  is  best  applied  with  a  spreader,  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twelve 
tons  per  acre. —  [Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 


FIG.  25.    A  wasteful  way  of  distributing  manure,  which  is  rapidly  passing  out 
of  practice. —  [Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


37 


FIG.  26.    A  soil  condition  undesirable  for  the  seeding  of  alfalfa. —  [Courtesy  John  Deere  &  Co.] 


FIG.  27.   The  ideal  alfalfa  seed  bed  is  firm  and  moist,  with  the  surface  inch  or  so  loose,  mellow,,  and  finely 
pulverized. — [Courtesy  The  Country  Gentleman.] 


38 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


SEED-BED   PREPARATION. 

The  ideal  seed  bed,  according  to  reporters,  is  firm  and  moist.  The  sur- 
face should  be  loose,  mellow  and  finely  pulverized,  to  a  depth  only  as 
great  as  it  is  intended  to  sow  the  seed.  The  field  should  be  as  smooth  as 
it  is  possible  to  make  it,  and  without  depressions  where  water  will  stand. 

Different  growers  have  different  methods  of  obtaining  a  proper  condi- 
tion of  seed  bed.  Some  plow  deep  for  the  preceding  crop,  and  then  very 
shallow  for  alfalfa;  others  plow  six  months  or  more  preceding  the  time 
of  sowing,  and  allow  nature  to  settle  the  soil.  In  the  latter  instance  the 
moisture  must  be  conserved  and  the  weeds  kept  down  until  seeding  time 


FlG.  28.    The  walking  plow  is  still  used  on  many  farms. —  [Courtesy  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.] 


FIG.  29.    Plowing  corn  ground  with  a  sulky  plow,  for  alfalfa. 
[Courtesy  Moline  Plow  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


39 


40 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


by  frequent  harrowing  or  cultivation,  amounting,  in  fact,  to  a  system  of 
fallowing.  There  are  growers  who  do  not  believe  in  plowing  at  all,  but 
prefer  thoroughly  to  disk  and  cross-disk  wheat,  oats,  corn  or  other  stubble, 
harrowing  and  smoothing  well  before  sowing.  By  this  method,  they  claim, 
the  ground  is  not  idle  at  any  time,  and  as  a  good  stand  may  thus  be 
secured,  it  is  a  waste  of  time  and  labor  to  plow.  The  success  of  this 
method  is  doubtless  somewhat  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  soil;  but  the  method  seems  to  be  preferable  to  plowing  a  short  time 
before  seeding. 

Plowing  for  spring  sowing  of  alfalfa  is  usually  done  in  the  fall  pre- 
ceding, and  the  ground  smoothed  in  the  spring,  although  there  are  some 
who  wait  until  early  spring  to  plow.  Plowing  for  fall  sowing  is  usually 
done  in  July,  or  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  preceding  crop  of  wheat 
or  oats  or  millet  is  off  the  ground.  Some  prefer  to  plow  for  fall  sowing 
in  the  spring,  and  fallow,  as  described  above,  until  the  time  of  sowing. 
The  depth  of  plowing  may  be  about  the  same  as  for  any  other  crop  when 
it  is  done  long  enough  before  the  time  of  seeding,  the  average  depth  re- 
ported being  six  inches.  The  closer  to  the  time  of  seeding  the  plowing 
is  done,  however,  the  more  shallow  it  should  be.  As  with  all  operations, 
the  better  the  job  of  plowing  the  better  the  results. 

Where  land  is  plowed  immediately  before  seeding  it  is  necessary  ar- 
tificially to  firm  it.  A  soil  packer  or  roller  is  a  good  implement  to  use 
in  this  instance;  but  where  such  is  not  available  it  is  the  practice  of 
many  growers  to  set  their  disks  straight  to  pack,  and  to  follow  with  plank 
or  log  drags,  alternating  with  the  harrow,  until  the  seed  bed  is  in  the 
desired  condition.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the 


FIG.  31.    The  better  the  job  of  plowing  the  better  the  results. 
[Courtesy  Janesville  Machine  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


41 


L 


42 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


01  c8 
•°  fl 

II 

g| 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  43 

freezing  and  thawing  and  snow  of  winter  and  the  beating  rains  of 
summer  may  be  very  efficient  aids  in  settling  the  seed  bed,  and  thus  save 
considerable  time  and  labor. 

In  the  case  of  breaking  sod  land  for  alfalfa,  a  Wallace  county  re- 
porter offers  the  following:  "Most  of  my  alfalfa  was  sown  on  sod  ground. 
I  prefer  to  break  in  March  or  April,  two  or  two  and  one-half  inches  deep. 
Follow  each  half-day's  breaking  with  a  roller  if  possible,  or  with  a  disk 
set  straight,  while  the  sod  is  yet  mellow.  The  idea  is  to  get  the  sod  flat 
and  not  to  pulverize  it.  If  a  disk  is  used  it  is  necessary  to  follow  with 
a  smoothing  harrow  and  a  plank  drag  to  crush  the  lumps." 

Another  Wallace  county  reporter  says :  "In  seeding  alfalfa  in  western 
Kansas  on  buffalo  grass  or  blue-stem  grass,  without  irrigation,  the  safest 
method  of  securing  a  stand  is  to  sow  on  freshly  broken  sod  in  early 
spring.  On  salt-grass  land  the  grass  should  be  killed  out  before  seeding." 
(See  pages  234  and  235.) 


FIG.  34.    A  land  roller  is  a  very  efficient  aid  in  firming  the  seed  bed. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

INOCULATION. 

Artificial  inoculation  is  not  very  generally  practiced  among  the  grow- 
ers reporting.  There  were  some,  however,  located  mostly  in  the  eastern 
third  of  the  state,  who  reported  having  inoculated  soil  for  alfalfa.  The 
most  popular  method  of  inoculation  is  that  of  scattering  from  300  to  500 
pounds  of  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  over  each  acre  of  the  new  field  by 
hand,  just  before  seeding,  and  disking  or  harrowing  it  in.  Soil  from  near 
the  surface  of  the  old  field,  or  a  sweet-clover  patch,  is  preferred.  Some 


44 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


growers  report  having  tried  cultures,  which  are  applied  to  the  seed  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  sent  with  them.  Not  a  few  growers,  upon  being 
asked  whether  or  not  they  inoculate  for  alfalfa,  replied  that  they  are  in 
the  habit  of  applying  barnyard  manure,  with  a  spreader,  at  the  rate  of 
about  ten  loads  per  acre. 


H  :  i  B 


FIG.  35.    The  smoothing  harrow  levels  and  pulverizes  the  surface  soil.     The 
harrow  cart  is  a  great  labor  saver. —  [Courtesy  Moline  Plow  Co.] 


FIG.  36.    Inoculated  portion  of  alfalfa  field  to  the  left;  uninoculated  portion  to  the  right. 
[Courtesy  Nebraska  Experiment  Station.] 

One  can  not  be  sure  that  inoculation  is  necessary  until  a  trial  seeding 
has  been  made.  Then,  if  the  plants  look  yellow  and  seem  to  be  dying, 
and  if  upon  examination  no  nodules  are  found  on  the  roots,  there  is  in- 
dication that  inoculation  is  necessary.  Of  course,  if  one  has  reason  to 
believe  that  the  soil  needs  inoculation  it  will  pay  to  inoculate  without 
first  making  a  trial.  (See  pages  215  and  236.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


45 


Eighty-four  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  expressed  preference 
for  home-grown  seed  as  compared  with  seed  grown  in  distant  localities. 
Almost  16  per  cent  said  that  it  made  no  difference  to  them  where  the 

seed  came  from.  All  of  those  rep- 
resented by  this  16  per  cent  are  lo- 
cated in  the  eastern  one-third  of 
the  state.  Only  one  grower  ex- 
pressed preference  for  foreign- 
grown  seed. 

About  35  per  cent  of  the  cor- 
respondents report  testing  their 
seed  for  germination.  They  are 
evenly  distributed  throughout  the 
state,  and  it  can  not  be  said  that 
the  practice  is  more  prevalent  in 
any  particular  section.  All  those 
who  have  tried  it  consider  the  test- 
ing of  seed  well  worth  the  time  and 
effort,  for  by  so  doing  they  know 
the  right  amount  to  plant  to  get  a 
stand,  and  are  enabled  to  detect 
inferior  seed.  They  report  that 
there  are  large  quantities  of  trash 
upon  the  market,  sold  as  good  al- 
FIG.  37.  Nodules  on  a  young  alfalfa  plant,  falfa  seed.  Home-grown  seed 

[Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.] 

seems  to  test  better  than  seed  from 

a  distance.  Seed  grown  under  irrigation  is  said  to  be  inferior  to  seed 
grown  under  ordinary  methods  of  culture.  A  general  opinion  prevails 
that  good  seed  will  test  from  90  to  98  per  cent,  most  growers  refusing  to 
plant  seed  which  will  not  test  90  per  cent  good. 

Seventy-two  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  growers  reporting  examine  their 
seed  for  impurities  or  adulterants  before  planting.  These  examinations 
establish  the  fact  that  there  is  always  more  or  less  weed  seed  and  dirt 
found  among  the  alfalfa  seeds: 

Labette  county:  "Too  many  weed  seeds  in  the  best." 

Marion  county:  "Some  is  nearly  worthless,  compared  with  prime  seed 
that  is  98  per  cent  pure." 

Coffey  county:  "I  would  not  sow  some  seed  if  it  were  given  me." 
Sumner  county:   "We  find  it  generally  from  95  to  96  per  cent  pure." 

Washington  county:  "It  leads  us  to  think  a  state  law  should  be  en- 
acted to  control  the  same." 

It  is  undoubtedly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  buy  from  reliable  seed  firms, 
or  to  know  that  the  seed  comes  from  weed-free  fields.  Here  are  several 
reports  bearing  on  this  subject: 

Crawford  county :  "I  buy  a  high  grade  of  seed  from  a  reliable  dealer." 


46 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Fia.  38.    Alfalfa  nodules,  greatly  magnified. —  [Courtesy  Nebraska  Station.] 


FIG.  39.    The  surface  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  or  a  patch  of  sweet  clover  may  be  used 
to  inoculate  new  fields. —  [Courtesy  Hoard's  Dairyman.} 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


47 


FIG.  40.  Scatter  inoculated  soil  over  uninoculated  fields  at  the  rate  of  300  to  500 
pounds  per  acre  and  harrow  it  in  immediately. —  [Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment 
station.] 

Montgomery  county:  "We  buy  the  best  goods  we  can  get." 

Rush  county :  "I  have  had  little  trouble  when  buying  first-grade  seed." 

Many  believe  home-grown  seed  most  likely  to  be  clean,  and  report 
something  like  this: 

Lyon  county:  "With  twenty- 
five  years'  experience  risking  my 
eyes  trying  to  find  adulterants  in 
home-grown  seed,  I  find  a  very 
small  proportion  of  impurities." 

Wilson  county:  "We  buy  only 
tested  seed,  and  that  nearly  al- 
ways from  neighbors  we  know." 

That  recleaning  is  often  a 
profitable  practice  is  the  testi- 
mony of  quite  a  number  of  grow- 
ers, who  report  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  Lane  county  man 
who  says,  "I  always  thoroughly 
reclean  my  seed  in  a  good  fanning 
mill  before  planting." 

The  principal  adulterants  and 


FIG.  41.  A  homemade  device  for  testing 
seeds.  "A"  closed,  "B"  open.  See  page  207. 
—  [Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture.] 


impurities  reported  as  found  in 
alfalfa  seed  are  the  seeds  of 
foxtail,  crab  grass,  pigweed,  Rus- 
sian thistle,  and  dodder,  in  the 

order  named.     "Weed  seed"  is  mentioned  quite  often,  in  a  general  way, 
without  naming  the  particular  kind.     (See  pages  205  to  214.) 

As  to  age,  one  grower  reports  success  in  planting  alfalfa  seed  that 
was  five  or  six  years  old. 


48 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  42.  An  alfalfa  seed  scratcher.  One  reason  why  we  plant  so  many  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed 
per  acre  is  the  fact  that  many  of  the  seeds  have  such  hard  coats  that  they  do  not  germinate  the 
first  year.  Prof.  H.  D.  Hughes,  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  invented  this  machine,  with 
which  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  germination  to  90  per  cent  of  seed  which  before  scarifying 
did  not  germinate  10  per  cent. —  [Courtesy  Farm  and  Fireside.] 

TIME  OF    SEEDING. 
TABLE  No.  3.     Growers'  preference  as  to  time  of  seeding. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Prefer  fall  seeding 

12 

51 

61 

52 

Prefer  spring  seeding  

84 

46 

27 

41 

Have  no  preference  

4 

3 

12 

7 

Growers  preferring  to  sow  alfalfa  in  the  spring  give  as  their  prin- 
cipal reasons:  better  moisture  condition  of  the  soil;  less  danger  from 
winterkilling;  the  avoidance  of  grasshoppers,  which  are  most  trouble- 
some in  the  fall;  and  less  danger  from  soil  blowing. 

The  advocates  of  fall  sowing,  on  the  other  hand,  contend:  that  there 
is  no  trouble  about  weeds  choking  out  the  young  plants  (more  than  65 
per  cent  of  them  mentioning  this  point)  ;  that  a  fuller  use  of  the  land  is 
had  in  the  year  of  seeding;  and  that  a  better  crop  of  alfalfa  is  obtained 
in  the  first  growing  season.  These  latter  contentions  are  more  clearly 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


49 


understood  when  one  considers  that  a  fall  sowing  is  usually  preceded  by 
an  early  maturing  crop  in  the  same  season,  and  that  a  crop  sown  in  the 
preceding  fall  and  coming  successfully  through  the  winter  is  quite  likely 
to  give  a  higher  yield  of  hay  in  the  first  growing  season  than  a  crop 
sown  in  the  spring.  A  typical  opinion,  from  a  Wabaunsee  county  ad- 
vocate of  fall  sowing,  reads:  "The  plants  get  a  good  start  in  the  fall, 
without  weeds,  and  we  have  three  good  crops  the  following  year; 
whereas  by  sowing  in  the  spring  there  is  a  continual  mowing  of  annual 
weeds,  without  getting  a  crop  to  speak  of  the  first  year." 

These  preferences  and  reasons  seem  entirely  consistent  with  climatic 
and  other  conditions.  For  instance:  in  the  western  third  of  the  state, 
where  the  rainfall  is  light,  where  grasshoppers  are  most  numerous,  and 
where  the  cold  winter  winds  are  more  apt  to  sweep  the  prairies,  the  con- 
ditions are  preponderantly  unfavorable  to  fall  seeding;  whereas  in  the 
eastern  third  of  the  state,  where  the  spring  rains  are  so  much  greater, 
and  favorable  to  the  growth  of  weeds  and  to  a  more  complete  use  of  the 
soil,  spring  seeding  is  bound  to  be  attended  with  much  greater  risk  than 
is  fall  seeding.  In  the  central  third,  where  these  two  extremes  merge, 
preference  should  reasonably  and  naturally  be  expected  to  be  about  evenly 
divided. 

The  answers  in  reply  to  the  question  about  the  exact  dates  of  sowing 
were  extremely  variable,  indicating  the  influence  of  varying  weather  and 
other  conditions.  Spring  plantings  are  made  as  early  as  from  about 
March  1  to  as  late  as  about  June  1,  and  sometimes  a  little  later.  They  are 
most  often  made  between  March  15  and  May  15.  Fall  plantings  are 
usually  made  from  about  August  15  to  September  15,  some  a  little  earlier 
and  some  a  little  later.  It  would  seem  that  in  the  spring  it  is  the  custom 
to  wait  until  danger  from  hard  freezing  is  past,  and  to  sow  before  it 
becomes  too  hot  and  dry,  while  in  the  fall  it  is  necessary  to  wait  until  the 
fall  rains  make  the  soil-moisture  condition  favorable,  but  not  until  it  is  so 
late  that  the  plants  can  not  become  well  established  before  winter.  (See 
page  235.) 

NURSE  CROP. 

The  use  of  a  nurse  crop  is  not  general  over  the  state. 

TABLE  No.  4.     Preference  for  or  against  a  nurse  crop. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

20 

20 

38 

00 

44 

43 

26 

OR 

No  experience  with  a  nurse  crop  

36 

37 

36 

36 

Analysis  of  the  replies  of  those  having  experience  with  a  nurse  crop, 
as  compared  with  the  time  of  sowing,  shows  54  per  cent  of  the  spring 
sowers  to  be  against  a  nurse  crop  and  46  per  cent  for  it,  while  the  fall 
sowers  stand  81  per  cent  against  and  19  per  cent  for  it.  Nearly  all  of 
the  spring  sowers  who  favor  a  nurse  crop  are  located  in  the  eastern  part 


50  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

of  the  state.  Returns  indicate  that  a  nurse  crop  is  not  successful  unless 
there  is  a  very  abundant  supply  of  moisture,  returns  from  the  western 
part  of  the  state  particularly  indicating  that  such  a  crop  is  likely  to  rob 
the  alfalfa  plants  of  much-needed  moisture.  The  chief  value  of  a  nurse 
crop  is  supposed  to  lie  in  its  ability  to  choke  out  weeds.  It  is  also  said  to 
be  sometimes  of  value  in  pumping  excessive  moisture  out  of  the  soil. 
Oats,  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  acre,  are  used  for  the  nurse  crop,  al- 
most exclusively.  (See  page  236.) 

ALFALFA  IN    COMBINATION    WITH    GRASSES. 

Eighteen  per  cent  of  our  correspondents  report  having  sown  other 
grasses  with  alfalfa.  Of  those  who  have  so  planted,  62  per  cent  report 
success  and  38  per  cent  report  failure.  Where  other  grasses  are  so 
sown,  the  object  is  to  get  pasture  that  will  not  cause  bloat.  Here  are  some 
of  the  replies : 

Allen  county:  "Yes.  I  now  have  the  best  tame-grass  pasture  I  ever 
saw.  It  was  seeded  with  alfalfa,  sweet  clover,  red  clover,  English  blue 
grass,  timothy,  and  orchard  grass." 

Butler  county :  "I  have  had  good  results  with  red  clover,  English  blue 
grass  and  alfalfa  for  pasture." 

Franklin  county:  "Yes,  with  blue  grass,  for  pasture.  Stock  won't 
bloat." 

Rooks  county :  "I  have  tried,  but  have  not  found  a  grass  that  will  live 
among  it  here." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "Yes.  I  have  seeded  alfalfa  with  Kentucky  blue 
grass,  orchard  grass  and  timothy,  but  the  blue  grass  soon  killed  out  the 
others." 

Nearly  all  of  the  successes  in  combining  alfalfa  with  other  grasses  are 
reported  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  where  rainfall  is  plentiful. 
The  only  grass  that  seems  to  have  succeeded  where  tried  in  combination 
with  alfalfa  is  English  blue  grass,  and  that  in  regions  where  it  is  most 
commonly  grown.  There  are  no  data  to  indicate  the  proportions,  the 
amount  and  the  time  of  seeding. 

BROADCASTING  VERSUS  DRILLING. 

Taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  grbwers  are  almost  equally  divided  on  the 
question  of  broadcasting  versus  sowing  by  drill.  In  the  western  third  of 
the  state,  57  per  cent  drill  and  43  per  cent  broadcast;  in  the  central 
third,  51  per  cent  drill  and  49  per  cent  broadcast;  and  in  the  eastern 
third,  42  per  cent  drill  and  58  per  cent  broadcast.  Those  using  the  drill 
prefer  to  have  the  drill  rows  about  three  or  four  inches  apart.  It  would 
seem  that  there  is  preference  for  broadcasting  where  considerable  mois- 
ture is  present,  and  for  drilling  where  drier  conditions  prevail.  The 
opinions  of  some  of  the  growers,  in  the  matter  of  broadcasting  versus 
drilling,  follow:  , 

Barton  county:  "I  prefer  broadcast  seeding.  It  makes  it  easier  to 
mow  and  there  is  an  evener  stand  than  with  drill  seeding.  Drilled  alfalia 
grows  too  thick  in  the  drills  to  cut  easily." 

Rooks  county:  "The  drill  gives  a  good  stand,  but  as  it  grows  the  al- 
falfa roots  bind." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


51 


Kingman  county:  "I  prefer  to  drill  if  it  is  possible  to  get  one  that  will 
sow  thin  enough,  though  I  usually  broadcast." 

Cloud  county:  "I  prefer  to  sow  with  a  drill  and  keep  the  disks  so  they 
barely  touch  the  ground,  covering  very  shallow." 

Logan  county:  "I  think  the  drill  the  best  if  it  does  not  get  in  too  deep." 

Kingman  county:  "If  the  ground  is  moist  and  in  good  condition  I 
broadcast." 

Clay  county:   "I  broadcast  if  it  is  wet,  and  drill  if  it  is  dry." 

Johnson  county:  "I  prefer  a  drill  if  it  is  dry,  and  broadcast  if  there 
is  plenty  of  moisture." 

Graham  county:  "Broadcast  if  you  have  cool,  cloudy  weather;  other- 
wise drill." 

Sedgwick  county :  "Broadcast  when  the  weather  is  calm,  but  drill  when 
the  weather  is  windy." 

Trego  county:  "I  have  most  always  sowed  broadcasti  If  drilled  the 
wind  is  likely  to  fill  in  the  drills  when  the  first  two  leaves  come  and  bury 
the  alfalfa,  or  a  heavy  rain  will  do  the  same." 

Clay  county:  "Drilling  gives  a  better  stand,  but  broadcasting  stands 
the  heavy  rains  best." 

Osage  county:  "If  you  drill  be  sure  and  close  the  drill  marks  with  the 
harrow  or  roller,  as  a  heavy  rain  will  bury  the  young  plants." 

Greenwood  county:  "If  I  sow  in  the  fall  I  prefer  drilling,  and  broad- 
cast in  the  spring." 


1 


/47 


FIG.  43.  Comparative  yields  of  alfalfa  from  thick  and  thin  stands.  Each  square 
represents  a  square  yard,  and  the  dots  the  number  of  plants  growing  in  such  an 
area.  The  columns  above  the  squares  indicate  the  yields  of  air-cured  hay  per  acre 
from  the  corresponding  stands. —  [Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station.] 


AMOUNT  TO   SOW  PER  ACRE. 

The  reports  on  the  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre  vary  considerably, 
ranging  all  the  way  from  6  to  20  pounds.  The  average  amount  sown  in 
the  eastern  third  of  the  state  is  16.09  pounds,  in  the  central  third  15.44 
pounds,  and  in  the  western  third  14.61  pounds.  The  estimates  in  the 
western  third  vary  from  6  to  20  pounds,  in  the  central  third  from  11  to 
20  pounds,  and  in  the  eastern  third  from  12  to  20  pounds.  These  amounts 
are  for  high-grade  seed. 


52 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  44.    Grain  drills  with  special  alfalfa  and  grass-seed  attachments  are  very  popular  for  sowing 
alfalfa  seed. — [Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 

SEEDING  IMPLEMENTS. 

Of  the  implements  used  in  sowing  seed,  grain  drills  with  special  grass- 
seed  attachments  are  more  in  use  than  any  other.  Thirty-nine  per  cent 
of  the  growers  reporting  on  the  subject  use  them.  Next  in  importance 
are  the  wheelbarrow,  end-gate,  and  hand  broadcast  seeders.  They  are 
represented,  in  all,  by  35  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting,  the  wheel- 
barrow seeders  alone  being  represented  by  23  per  cent  of  the  growers. 
Seventeen  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  on  the  subject  of  seeders 
mentioned  special  alfalfa  drills,  9  per  cent  special  alfalfa  broadcast 
seeders,  and  only  4  per  cent  reported  using  the  old-fashioned  hand  method 
of  sowing.  Returns  indicate  that  where  alfalfa  seed  is  drilled,  either  a 
special  alfalfa  drill  or  a  common  grain  drill  with  grass-seed  attachment 
is  generally  used;  and  where  alfalfa  seed  is  broadcasted,  wheelbarrow 
and  hand  seeders  are  most  popular. 


FIG.   45.    Wheelbarrow  seeders  are  used  by  23  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting. 
[Courtesy  O.  E.  Thompson  &  Sons.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


53 


COVERING  THE   SEED. 

Growers  were  unanimous  in  asserting  that  alfalfa  seed  should  be 
covered  lightly.  Replies  specified  depths  varying  from  one-half  inch  to 
one  and  one-half  inches,  there  being  about  the  same  variation  in  all 

parts  of  the  state.  The  average 
depth  preferred  is  about  one  inch. 
"Harrow  lightly,"  "Cover  as  shal- 
low as  possible,"  "Harrow  once," 
"Harrow  lightly,  both  ways,"  and 
"Harrow  just  enough  to  cover,"  are 
typical  replies.  One  grower  said, 
"It  depends  on  the  soil;  deeper  in 
sandy  soil";  and  another  said,  "It 
must  go  into  moist  soil,  and  must 
therefore  be  planted  at  least  one 
inch  deep." 

SUCCEEDING   WHERE   PREVIOUSLY 
FAILED. 

Another  question  asked  was: 
"Have  you  succeeded  with  alfalfa 
on  land  where  it  had  previously 
failed?  How?"  The  majority  of 
the  growers  who  have  tried  report 
that  it  generally  can  be  done.  The 
first  thing  to  consider  is  the  reason 
for  the  previous  failure.  It  may 
have  been  because  of  a  need  of 
drainage,  manuring,  liming  or  in- 
oculation, or  because  of  faulty  soil 
preparation,  or  of  temporarily  un- 
favorable weather  or  soil  condi- 
tions. When  the  cause  of  the  fail- 
ure is  determined  and  removed  or 
avoided,  a  second  trial  will  gener- 
ally prove  successful. 

IMPROVING     THE     STAND. 

The     following     question     was 
FIG.  46.    Hand  seeders  are  used  to  a      asked :    "With  a  poor  stand  of  al- 

considerable     extent. —  [Courtesy     Cyclone         .   .„       .  ,       . 

Seeder  Company.]  falfa,  have  you  ever  had  any  suc- 

cess in  improving  the  stand  by  re- 
seeding  without  plowing  it  up?"  The  replies  to  this  question  would  indi- 
cate that  while  considerable  success  is  had  in  reseeding  patches  or  spots, 
it  is  not  often  that  a  stand  which  is  thin  throughout  is  thickened  by  re- 
seeding  without  plowing  it  up.  Most  of  the  instances  of  successful  thick- 
ening are  with  alfalfa  not  over  a  year  old.  Old  alfalfa  has  a  tendency  to 
shade  and  smother  out  any  young  plants  that  may  start. 


TbeWorld'sStandard 


CYCLONE 
SEED  SOWER 


SOWER  THAT 
SCATTERS  EVENLt 


54 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  47.   An  end-gate  seeder. 
[Courtesy  S.  Freeman  &  Sons  Mfg.  Co.] 

Most  of  the  growers  reporting  success  in  improving  a  stand  recom- 
mend disking  or  otherwise  cultivating  the  field  before  reseeding.    After 

reseeding  a  harrowing  is  generally 
given.  The  time  to  do  this  work  is 
almost  invariably  specified  as  early 
spring  before  the  old  alfalfa  starts, 
although  there  are  some  who,  upon 
getting  a  thin  stand  by  spring  sow- 
ing, resow  in  the  fall.  An  abund- 
ance of  rainfall  is,  of  course,  very 
favorable.  A  method  of  thickening 
a  stand,  which  was  mentioned  quite 
a  number  of  times,  is  that  of  allow- 
ing a  crop  of  alfalfa  to  go  to  seed 
and  shatter  out,  later  harrowing 
the  seed  into  the  soil.  Some  grow- 
ers recommend  frequent  clipping  of 
the  old  alfalfa  until  the  young 
plants  get  a  start.  Here  are  some 
reports  on  the  subject: 

Neosho  county:  "Very  little  suc- 
cess if  the  field  is  thin  all  over. 
Bare  patches  can  be  brought  out 
by  reseeding,  but  if  a  thin  stand 
I  would  plow  up." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  have 
spent  a  great  deal  of  money  trying 
to  thicken  the  stand,  but  always 
without  success." 


FIG.  48.  Not  many  growers  use  the 
old-fashioned  hand  method  of  sowing. 
—i-[ Courtesy  Farmers  Mail  and  Breeze.} 


Ness  county:  "Yes.  Disk,  sow  the  seed,  and  then  harrow.  Do  it  in 
the  early  spring." 

Cherokee  county:  "Disk  twice  in  February  or  March  and  sow  the  1st 
of  April." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  55 

Morris  county:  "Sow  very  early  and  cut  often  to  keep  the  old  alfalfa 
from  smothering  the  young  plants." 

Mitchell  county:  "Yes.  Sometimes  a  failure.  Sow  with  plenty  of 
moisture  before  the  rest  of  stand  is  too  old." 

Geary  county:  "Yes.  If  sown  in  fall  reseed  early  the  following 
spring,  and  if  sown  in  spring  reseejl  in  the  following  fall,  but  never 
later." 

Wichita,  county:  "Very  little,  except  with  a  young  stand.  After  one 
year  old  I  would  plow  it  up." 

Harvey  county:  "Our  alfalfa  improves  itself  when  we  raise  a  seed 
crop." 

Republic  county:  "Let  the  second  crop  go  to  seed  and  pasture  it  off 
with  horses.  Harrow  good  in  the  fall." 

WEEDS   IN   YOUNG  ALFALFA. 

Weeds  in  young  alfalfa  are  sometimes  a  very  serious  pest,  and  the 
best  remedy,  as  reported,  is  prevention.  Preceding  crops  should  be  well 
cultivated,  and  kept  as  free  from  weeds  as  possible.  The  seed  bed  should 
be  reasonably  clean  at  time  of  sowing,  and  the  alfalfa  seed  should  be 
free  from  weed  seed.  The  system  of  fallowing  alfalfa  land  and  destroy- 
ing the  sprouted  weeds  as  often  as  they  appear,  with  the  harrow,  is 
good.  Where  weeds  usually  give  great  trouble  with  spring-sown  alfalfa, 
fall  seeding  is  an  excellent  means  of  avoidance. 

When  weeds  are  very  thick  and  troublesome  young  alfalfa  plants  are 
sometimes  smothered  out;  the  weeds  simply  take  the  field.  The  only 
thing  to  do  in  instances  like  this  is  to  plow  the  field,  cleanse  it  of  weeds, 
and  resow  with  pure  seed.  There  are  few  fields  that  do  not  have  some 
weeds  during  the  first  growing  season,  however,  and  certain  practices 
have  proved  beneficial.  The  most  common  practice  is  that  of  clipping 
with  the  mower.  There  is  danger  in  clipping  young  alfalfa  too  closely, 
and  the  cutter  bar  should  be  set  to  cut,  as  one  reporter  expresses  it,  "as 
much  of  the  weeds  and  as  little  of  the  alfalfa  as  possible."  Several  re- 
. porters  say  that  they  wait  until  the  alfalfa  is  in  bloom  before  clipping; 
others  watch  the  weeds,  and  endeavor  to  cut  close  to  the  time  of  their 
seeding,  though  before  there  is  danger  of  the  alfalfa  going  to  seed. 
Still  others  advocate  clipping  "high,  and  as  many  times  as  necessary; 
often  three  or  four  times."  Unless  the  volume  is  so  great  as  to  smother 
the  alfalfa  plants,  the  clippings  of  weeds  are  usually  left  lying  where 
they  fall.  There  are  growers  who,  under  these  circumstances,  fight  weeds 
"by  disking  or  using  the  spike-tooth  harrow,  the  spring-tooth  harrow,  the 
alfalfa  .renovator  or  the  alfalfa  cultivator,  but  many  consider  such 
methods  too  strenuous  for  young  alfalfa  in  its  first  growing  season. 
Following  are  some  of  the  replies  received  in  regard  to  this  question : 

Greenwood  county:  "Mowing  when  the  alfalfa  begins  to  bloom  will 
destroy  weeds  in  a  young  field.  Mowing  earlier  than  that  will  kill  the 
young  plants." 

Geary  county:  "Use  a  good  mowing  machine.  Don't  cut  the  first  time 
till  you  see  a  few  blossoms,  and  let  the  first  two  cuttings  lie  on  the 
ground,  no  matter  how  heavy  the  weed  crop  is." 

Chautauqua  county :  "I  don't  favor  too  much  mowing  in  the  first  year." 


56  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Elk  county:  "One  of  the  most  injurious  things  I  know  of  is  the 
practice  of  cutting  young  alfalfa  too  soon;  it  is  nearly  certain  death  to 
cut  before  in  bloom." 

Labette  county:  "Repeated  clipping  of  spring-sown  alfalfa  with  the 
mower  set  rather  high  will  get  rid  of  weeds.  Clip  often  enough  so  that 
raking  is  not  necessary." 

Kingman  county:  "Big  weeds  can  be  kept  down  by  mowing  often,  but 
crab  grass  and  other  like  weeds  are  hard  to  control." 

Jackson  county:  "Clip  with  the  mower  two  or  three  times  the  first 
year.  Alfalfa  never  yields  much  the  first  and  second  years  on  upland. 
Mow  regularly  and  be  patient." 

Logan  county:  "Mow  when  the  alfalfa  plant  is  about  12  or  15  inches 
high,  setting  the  cutter  par  just  as  high  as  possible." 

Mitchell  county :  "I  find  the  best  way  to  destroy  weeds  is  to  mow  them 
off  a  little  above  the  young  alfalfa." 

Osage  county:  "Use  the  mowing  machine  with  the  cutter  bar  set  high. 
Coarse  weeds  very  seldom  injure  a  stand  if  clipped  before  they  become 
woody." 

Mitchell  county :  "Keep  them  clipped  off  but  not  too  closely.  If  heavy 
enough  to  smother  the  young  alfalfa,  rake  and  remove." 

Seward  county:  "I  let  them  all  come  together  till  the  alfalfa  is  in 
bloom  and  then  cut  with  the  mower." 

Scott  county:  "It  is  impossible  to  destroy  the  weeds  the  first  year.  The 
second  year  the  alfalfa  will  do  it  if  you  have  a  good  stand." 

Hodgeman  county :  "Mow  as  soon  as  they  get  above  the  sickle  bar  and 
'fire  it  into  'em'  every  time,  the  first  season.  Disk  early  the  second  year." 

Johnson  county:  "The  first  alfalfa  I  ever  raised,  fifteen  or  more  years 
ago,  the  grass  and  weeds  were  about  to  take.  I  disked  one  way.  Then  I 
disked  it  the  other  way.  It  seemed  to  help." 

(See  pages  241  and  332.) 

WEEDS  IN   OLD  ALFALFA. 

The  question  was  asked,  "When  crab  grass,  foxtail  or  blue  grass  begin 
to  get  a  hold  on  a  field  of  alfalfa,  how  should  the  field  be  treated?"  Forty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  growers  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  only  thing  to 
do  is  to  plow  the  field ;  44  per  cent  suggested  remedies,  where  the  infesta- 
tion is  not  too  great;  nearly  11  per  cent,  located  in  the  western  third  of 
the  state,  said  that  they  are  not  seriously  troubled  in  this  way ;  and  some 
growers  asserted  that  while  nothing  seems  to  control  blue  grass,  crab  grass 
and  foxtail  may  be  controlled.  Of  those  suggesting  remedies,  nearly  73 
per  cent  recommended  cultivation  in  early  spring  and  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  different  cuttings,  27  per  cent  recommended  mowing,  and  a  few 
growers  reported  that  burning  over  the  field  in  early  spring  will  help. 
Here  are  some  of  the  reports : 

Russell  county:  "We  have  no  crab  grass  here,  but  we  have  foxtail.  I 
plow  it  up  when  it  is  too  bad.  If  we  can  get  the  alfalfa  one  year  old, 
foxtail  won't  hurt  it." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "If  the  grass  is  on  account  of  a  thin  stand  it 
should  be  plowed  up  and  reseeded,  otherwise  disking  may  do  good." 

Rawlins  county:  "Disk  thoroughly,  running  the  disk  plates  nearly 
straight." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  57 

Brown  county:  "Cultivate  crab  grass  or  foxtail;  plow  blue  grass." 

Russell  county:  "If  there  is  any  surface  moisture  you  can  help  by 
disking  with  a  spike  disk  after  cutting  the  hay." 

Chautauqua  county:  "The  use  of  a  spring-tooth  harrow  is  the  best — 
points  sharp  and  well  weighted  down." 

Finney  county:  "No  crab  grass  or  blue  grass  here.  I  irrigate  if  pos- 
sible ;  then  the  alfalfa  will  smother  out  the  foxtail." 

Neosho  county:  "No  experience  with  blue  grass.  For  crab  grass  and 
foxtail  let  the  alfalfa  stand  until  the  sprouts  of  the  next  crop  show  on 
the  crown,  then  cut  it  about  two  inches  high,  and  the  new  crop  of  alfalfa 
will  in  most  cases  beat  the  crab  grass  and  foxtail  out." 

Douglas  county :  "Mow  before  crab  grass  and  foxtail  go  to  seed." 
Norton  county :  "Burn  off  early  in  spring,  before  the  alfalfa  starts." 

Montgomery  county :  "Burning  in  early  spring  is  about  all  that  can  be 
done." 

(See  pages  210  to  214  and  332  to  338.) 

CULTIVATION. 

There  is  great  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of 
alfalfa.  Some  growers  think  it  a  good  practice;  others  think  it  is  not 
a  good  practice.  The  reports  indicate  that  if  properly  done,  with  the 
right  implements,  it  is  often  helpful.  Here  are  some  reports  not  favorable 
to  the  practice: 

Douglas  county:  "It  does  not  pay  to  disk.  The  disk  splits  the  crown 
and  lets  water  in,  and  the  plant  rots." 

Geary  county:  "Don't  disk  or  cultivate.  It  will  increase  the  crop  for 
a  few  cuttings,  but  it  splits  the  crown  and  causes  it  to  rot." 

Lincoln  county:  "I  killed  one  field  of  alfalfa  by  disking,  weighting  my 
disk  and  setting  it  to  tear  out  too  many  crowns." 

Neosho  county:  "I  do  not  believe  in  disking  or  cultivating.  I  believe 
that  such  practices  result  in  the  final  death  of  the  plant,  as  I  find  where 
the  crown  is  cut  in  two,  and  dirt  gets  in,  the  plant  will  sooner  or  later 
rot  and  die." 

Republic  county:  "Never  disk  or  cultivate,  as  you  split  the  crown  and 
dry  rot  ruins  your  field." 

Barton  county:  "I  don't  believe  in' disking  and  cultivating,  as  it  thins 
the  alfalfa  and  damages  the  crown,  thinning  the  crop  of  hay." 

Labette  county:  "I  have  used  the  disk  and  the  renovator  in  the  spring 
and  the  disk  and  harrow  after  the  second  and  third  cuttings,  and  can 
see  but  little  improvement,  except  to  hold  moisture  in  case  of  drouth." 

Geary  county:  "I  have  disked  frequently,  always  leaving  a  strip 
through  the  center  untouched,  and  have  never  been  able  to  distinguish 
any  difference." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  have  disked  for  many  years,  and  latterly  with, 
a  spiked  disk,  but  I  have  failed  to  see  any  improvement  on  the  crop  by 
disking.  The  frosts  during  the  winter  seem  to  loosen  our  ground  suf- 
ficiently without  disking." 

Chase  county:  "Results  of  cultivation  have  not  been  noticeable  either 
way.  I  do  not  think  the  results  justify  it." 


58 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  49.  The  effect  of  disking  alfalfa.  1,  Plant  injured  by  disking.  Note  decay  at  base. 
2,  Vigorous  young  plant  from  two-year-old  field.  3,  Plant  of  same  age  as  No.  1  and  from 
same  field,  not  injured  by  disk. —  [Courtesy  The  Country  Gentleman.] 


On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  who  favor  it: 

Nemaha  county:  "I  disk  my  field  each  year,  and  find  it  pays,  as  the 
ground  takes  in  moisture  more  readily." 

Reno  county:  "I  have  increased  the  yield  500  to  800  pounds  per  acre 
by  disking  early  in  the  spring  with  a  spike-tooth  disk." 

Scott  county:  "I  increase  the  yield  one-third  by  double  disking  with 
the  spike  disk." 

Sherman  county:  "I  believe  after  alfalfa  is  one  to  two  years  old  the 
disk  is  of  great  benefit.  I  disked  one  field,  where  the  grass  was  coming 
among  the  alfalfa,  until  you  would  think  it  was  plowed,  and  in  a  few  days 
the  alfalfa  came  celan." 

Cloud  county:  "Only  old  alfalfa  fields  should  be  disked  and  cultivated. 
It  makes  the  hay  finer  and  increases  the  yield." 

Comanche  county:  "The  spike-tooth  disk  opens  up  the  soil  well;  other 
disks  kill  weeds." 

Dickinson  county :  "I  disk  every  field  of  alfalfa  once  each  season.  By 
this  method  I  keep  all  weeds  out,  such  as  foxtail,  crab  grass  and  vines." 

Finney  county:  "I  have  disked  my  alfalfa  when  I  thought  it  necessary 
to  kill  out  grass.  Otherwise  I  do  not  disk  or  cultivate." 

Rooks  county:  "I  have  used  the  shovel  digger,  common  disk  and  the 
spike-tooth  disk.  I  prefer  the  spike-tooth.  If  alfalfa  is  growing  well 
let  it  alone." 

Douglas  county:  "Cultivation  proves  very  profitable  and  is  the  only 
way  to  keep  your  field  free  from  crab  grass,  foxtail  and  blue  grass." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  59 


FIG.  50.  Cultivation  should  be  with  implements  having  nar- 
row, blunted  teeth,  which  are  not  so  rigid  but  that  they  readily 
dodge  or  slip  to  one  side  when  striking  an  alfalfa  crown. — 
[Courtesy  Light  Draft  Harrow  Co.] 

Where  so  many  growers,  all  practical  men,  differ  so  widely  in  regard 
to  a  practice,  the  reason  probably  may  be  found  in  the  manner  of  perform- 
ing the  operation  and  the  tools  with  which  it  is  performed.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  following : 

Norton  county:  "If  proper  tools  are  used  I  think  cultivation  is  a  good 
thing." 

Osage  county:  "I  do  not  like  a  disk  on  account  of  its  cutting  and  bruis- 
ing the  roots  too  much,  causing  decay.  I  sometimes  use  a  common  harrow 
with  the  teeth  set  straight.  I  think  a  spring-tooth  harrow,  with  lever,  is 
better." 

Ottawa  county:  "We  find  that  disking  with  a  common  disk  thins  our 
stand,  and  do  not  advocate  the  practice.  A  common  harrow  is  better." 

Finney  county:  "Disking  is  injurious,  in  that  it  injures  the  crowns, 
causing  rot  of  the  root.  Cultivation  with  an  implement  having  blunt 
teeth  may  be  beneficial  if  the  surface  soil  becomes  packed." 

Russell  county:  "I  think  it  best  to  disk  early,  about  the  time  alfalfa 
starts — lightly,  with  a  spike  disk  or  a  sharp  harrow.  I  don't  like  the 
regular  disks ;  they  thin  the  alfalfa  too  much." 

Rush  county:  "After  the  field  is  sown  three  or  four  years  it  may  be 
cultivated  with  an  old  hoe  drill  or  a  regular  alfalfa  cultivator,  but  not 
disked." 

Ness  county:  "A  narrow-pointed  hoe  drill,  that  will  dodge  the  plants, 
is  good.  I  do  not  like  a  disk  that  splits  the  plant." 

Jewell  county:  "If  you  want  to  kill  an  alfalfa  field  just  put  a  disk  into 
it.  Use  an  alfalfa  cultivator." 

Thomas  county:  "I  do  not  think  it  good  to  use  a  disk  harrow  or  a 
spike-tooth  disk.  They  split  the  crown.  I  claim  splitting  the  crown  is 
injurious  to  the  plant.  I  prefer  a  regular  alfalfa  cultivator  of  the  latest 
improved  type."  i 

Cherokee  county:  "Use  something  that  will  not  split  the  crowns.  The 
alfalfa  disk  or  spring-tooth  harrow  is  good." 

Mitchell  county:  "My  experience  has  been  that  disking  cuts  the  alfalfa 
crown  to  a  great  extent,  whereas  a  cultivator  does  not." 


60 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


61 


Dickinson  county:  "Disking  cuts  into  the  stalk  and  injures  the  plant. 
I  believe  in  loosening  the  ground  to  admit  air  and  rain,  but  not  in  cutting 
roots,  to  get  good  results." 

Coicley  county:  "I  have  done  some.  It  is  all  right  if  done  at  the  right 
time  with  a  spring-tooth  cultivator.  Do  it  early  in  the  spring  and  after 
each  cutting." 

Ellis  county:  "Disking  usually  does  more  harm  than  good.  Shovel 
tools  give  the  most  desirable  results." 

Greenwood  county:  "I  don't  like  the  ordinary  disk.  I  use  a  spike  disk 
and  think  it  is  a  good  thing  to  open  up  the  land." 

Brown  county:  "I  have  found  that  disking  makes  hollow  roots  and  the 
plants  die  out.  I  now  harrow  after  each  cutting." 

Chautauqua  county:  "A  disk  is  a  poor  implement  in  alfalfa.  You  can 
not  afford  to  cut  the  roots.  Any  cultivator  with  sharp,  narrow  teeth  is 
better." 

Montgomery  county:  "Never  cultivate  before  two  years  old.  A  disk  is 
too  risky.  Better  use  an  old  hoe  drill  or  the  same  principle  on  another 
machine." 

Mitchell  county:  "We  use  the  spring-tooth  harrow  or  the  spring-tooth 
alfalfa  renovator.  The  full-face  disk  harrow  does  little  good.  The  spike- 
tooth  harrow  does  fair  work." 

From  a  study  of  the  replies  received  it  would  appear  that  an  alfalfa 
field  should  be  at  least  two  years  old  before  cultivation  is  attempted ;  three 
or  four  years  is  better.  The  cultivation  is  best  done  in  early  spring,  after 
the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  and  before  growth  starts,  and,  if  necessary, 
after  each  cutting.  The  alfalfa  cultivator  or  renovator,  the  old  hoe  drill, 


FIG.  52.    The  regular  alfalfa  cultivator  is  a  very  good  implement  to  use. 
[Courtesy  Moline  Plow  Co.] 


62 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


the  spring-tooth  harrow,  and  the  common  spike-tooth  or  smoothing  har- 
row with  the  teeth  set  straight,  are  the  best  implements  to  use.  It  is  best 
that  the  teeth  be  narrow  and  blunted,  and  not  so  rigid  but  that  they 
readily  dodge  or  slip  to  one  side  when  striking  the  crown  of  an  alfalfa 
plant.  Sharp  blades  or  teeth  that  are  likely  to  split  the  crowns  are  prov- 
ing unpopular,  for  the  wounds  they  make  cause  decay  and  death  of  the 
plant.  The  reason  for  cultivation  is  to  loosen  a  hard,  packed  soil,  caused 
by  pasturing  or  something  else,  and  to  destroy  blue  grass,  crab  grass, 
foxtail  or  other  weeds. 

TOP-DRESSING   WITH    MANURE. 

Growers  are  practically  unanimous  in  their  assertions  that  top-dressing 
with  barnyard  manure  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  alfalfa.  Such  replies  as 
these  indicate  the  value  of  the  practice :  "Prolongs  life  and  increases  the 
yield" ;  "increases  the  yield  on  some  land  fully  one-third" ;  "increases  yield 


FIG.  53.    A  top-dressing  of  manure  applied  in  late  fall  or  winter  at  the  rate  of  6  to  10 
spreader  loads  per  acre  has  a  very  beneficial  effect. —  [Courtesy  Breeder's  Gazette.] 

one-third  to  one-half";  "stimulates  growth  and  increases  yield";  "makes 
much  heavier  crop — too  rank  for  seed";  "no  crop  responds  quicker"; 
"grows  darker  and  ranker";  "made  old  field  look  like  new";  "prevents 
land  from  blowing  in  this  section";  "seems  to  stand  spring  heaving  bet- 
ter"; "can't  make  better  use  of  manure";  "think  it  highly  profitable." 
The  effects  of  top-dressing  with  manure  are  particularly  noticeable  when 
followed  by  a  wet  season. 

To  secure  best  results  the  manure  should  be  well  rotted  and  fine  in 
texture.  Otherwise  the  course  straw  will  be  raked  up  with  following  cut- 
tings "of  hay.  It  should  also  be  reasonably  free  from  foreign  seeds,  like 
those  of  timothy,  blue  grass  or  weeds  of  any  kind,  for  the  obvious  reason 
that  they  will  cause  trouble  by  germinating  and  growing.  Light  ap- 
plications should  be  made,  in  late  fall  or  winter,  at  the  rate  of  six  to  ten 
spreader  loads  per  acre,  the  average  reported  being  eight  loads.  The 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  63 

manure  should  be  scattered  evenly,  and  while  pitchforks  may  be  used,  a 
regular  manure  spreader  will  do  the  work  much  better  and  more  eco- 
nomically. It  is  a  good  idea  to  harrow  the  field  thoroughly  in  the  follow- 
ing spring  in  either  case,  so  that  the  manure  may  be  more  thoroughly  and 
evenly  scattered,  torn  apart  and  worked  into  closer  contact  with  the  soil, 
thus  bringing  about  quicker  results  and  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
dapger  of  raking  it  up  with  hay. 

Most  growers  prefer  to  make  applications  every  second  year.  It  was 
stated  by  some  that  top-dressings  of  manure  had  best  not  be  made  until 
after  the  second  growing  season,  although  from  a  number  of  counties 
were  received  reports  that  light  applications  of  manure  are  sometimes 
made  to  newly  sown  fields  in  the  fall.  Such  applications  help  keep  the 
ground  from  heaving  to  the  detriment  of  the  young  plant.  Some  typical 
replies  follow: 

Montgomery  county:  "Satisfactory.  It  will  probably  bring  greater 
returns  than  manure  placed  on  other  field  crops." 

Mitchell  county:  "Very  favorable.  The  alfalfa  grows  more  luxuri- 
antly, especially  with  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  Yields  heavier." 

Osage  county:  "Very  satisfactory.  Would  consider  one  load  spread 
on  top  equal  in  value  to  two  or  three  loads  plowed  under,  for  alfalfa." 

Douglas  county:  "Good  results  have  been  obtained,  but  one  should  be 
very  careful  and  not  top-dress  with  manure  which  is  laden  with  grass 
and  weed  seed." 

Coffey  county:  "The  results  have  been  good  when  properly  applied 
with  spreader  and  when  ground  was  frozen." 

Rice  county:  "Quite  successful,  especially  well-rotted  or  fine  manure." 

McPherson  county:  "Don't  like  to  do  this  during  the  summer  very 
well,  because  of  making  the  hay  dirty.  I  prefer  the  fall  or  winter." 

Cowley  county:  "If  done  at  the  right  time  in  winter,  all  right,  but  if 
done  in  the  spring  or  hot  weather  it  burns  it  out." 

Leavenworth  county:  "Good  when  put  on  light  and  even  after  the 
second  year's  growth." 

Harvey  county:  "We  use  barnyard  manure,  but  do  not  apply  it  to 
young  alfalfa." 

Lane  county:  "Dress  lightly  during  the  winter  and  disk  it  in  early 
spring.  Very  beneficial  for  several  seasons." 

Jefferson  county:  "I  spread  manure,  about  six  tons  per  acre,  every 
other  year.  It  works  fine." 

TIME  TO   CUT. 

The  proper  time  to  cut  alfalfa  hay  is  determined  by  the  observation 
of  one  or  more  of  three  things,  namely:  the  amount  of  bloom;  the 
sprouts  or  shoots  of  the  next  crop;  and  the  turning  yellow  of  the  under 
leaves  of  the  standing  growth.  Of  the  three  methods  the  "bloom"  and 
"shoot"  methods  are  by  far  the  most  popular.  By  the  "bloom"  method, 
growers  prefer  to  cut  when  the  alfalfa  is  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  in 
bloom;  the  majority  prefer  one-tenth  although  when  the  hay  is  for 
horses  one-half  or  even  two-thirds  or  more  in  bloom  is  not  too  far  along. 
In  case  of  a  large  acreage  it  is  usually  necessary  to  start  cutting  in  the 
extreme-early  stage  of  bloom,  in  order  that  the  alfalfa  cut  last  may 


64 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


65 


not  become  too  far  advanced.  Often,  with  the  first  crop  particularly, 
and  in  wet  seasons,  the  shoots  of  the  next  crop  may  start  before  any 
blossoms  show,  and  may  become  so  high  that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  at 
once.  To  cut  off  these  young  shoots  will  not  only  injure  the  next  crop, 
but  may  also  seriously  endanger  the  life  of  the  plants.  Hence  many 
growers,  particularly  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  state,  pay  little  or  no 
attention  to  the  bloom  and  watch  only  the  shoots  of  the  next  crop ;  others 
watch  both  indications,  and  some  watch  the  new  shoots  for  the  first  cut- 


Fia.  55.  The  shoots  quickly  spring  from  the  crown,  and  the  grower  must  be  on 
the  alert  to  cut  the  present  crop  before  the  shoots  of  the  next  crop  get  too  high. — 
[Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.] 

ting  and  the  bloom  for  succeeding  cuttings.  Under  certain  circum- 
stances, as  when  the  bloom  indicates  that  it  is  time  to  cut,  it  may  be  un- 
wise to  wait  for  the  new  shoots.  The  following  represent  the  different 
views  expressed : 

Jackson  county:  "There  are  three  ways  to  determine:  the  bloom,  the 
young  shoots,  and  when  the  under  leaves  get  yellow.  Watch  all  three 
indications." 

Osborne  county:  "For  cattle  when  about  one-tenth  in  bloom,  and  for 
horses  when  one-half  in  bloom." 

—3 


66 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Wyandotte  county:  "By  the  bloom.  Begin  early  or  it  will  be  too  late 
when  you  get  around." 

Chautauqua  county :  "When  in  full  bloom,  unless  on  account  of  climatic 
conditions  new  growth  starts  before  bloom  appears.  It  should  be  cut 
before  new  growth  becomes  tall  enough  to  be  caught  by  the  sickle." 

Brown  county:  "One-tenth  in  bloom,  but  I  see  now,  May  16,  that  there 
is  no  bloom  on  my  alfalfa  and  shoots  one  to  three  inches  long  have 
started." 

Crawford  county:  "First  crop  when  crown  sprouts  start  well;  second, 
third  and  fourth  when  about  one-fifth  in  bloom." 

Chase  county:  "When  it  begins  to  sprout  from  bottom  or  when  bloom 
begins  to  show." 

Miami  county:  "I  don't  mind  the  bloom.  Watch  for  the  sprouts  at 
the  crown  and  cut  when  one  inch  high." 

Cowley  county:  "We  commence  when  shoots  are  two  or  three  inches 
high  fr.om  the  roots." 

Wallace  county:  "When  one-tenth  in  bloom.  I  like  to  see  the  young 
shoots  two  or  three  inches  tall,  and  cut  above  them." 

Labette  county:  "Cut,  if  possible,  when  the  new  growth  starts.  In 
putting  up  a  large  acreage  begin  the  first  crop  sooner  than  this.  Sub- 
sequent cuttings  then  follow  in  succession." 

Greenwood  county:  "I  cut  when  the  bottom  leaves  begin  to  turn 
yellow." 


FIG.  56.    In  well-established  alfalfa  set  the  sickle  bar   about  two   and  one-half   inches  from  th< 
ground. —  [Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


67 


HEIGHT   TO   CUT. 

In  answer  to  a  question  about  the  height  to  set  the  sickle  bar  in  cut- 
ting alfalfa,  growers  estimated  the  proper  height  to  be  from  one  and 
one-half  to  four  inches,  averaging  about  two  and  one-half  inches.  A  large 
proportion  of  them  advised  cutting  as  closely  as  possible,  frequently 
volunteering  the  information  that  close  cutting  does  not  injure  the  plants, 
and  really  seems  to  have  a  beneficial  effect.  Still,  a  goodly  percentage 
cautioned  against  cutting  too  closely,  and  gave  their  reasons  therefor. 
Typical  warnings  read  like  this:  "Mow  as  high  as  the  mower  will  cut. 
Short  or  close  mowing,  especially  of  the  first  cutting,  kills  more  alfalfa 
than  anything  I  know  of."  "Depends  on  the  next  crop  of  shoots.  If  be- 
fore next  shoots  start,  cut  low;  if  shoots  have  started,  turn  the  bar  up  so 
as  to  let  them  under."  "Cut  three  to  four  inches  high  for  a  new  seeding. 
Afterwards  mow  as  close  as  you  care  to."  The  danger  of  killing  young 
alfalfa  by  mowing  too  closely  is  discussed  at  considerable  length  on 
pages  241  and  242. 

Wide-cut,  two-horse  mowers  are  recommended. 


FIG.  57.    Sufficient  growth  should  be  left  in  the  fall  to  hold  the  snow  for  winter  pro- 
tection and  moisture. —  [Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.] 

GROWTH   LEFT   TO  GO   INTO   WINTER. 

The  amount  of  growth  that  should  be  left  to  go  into  winter  varies 
from  three  to  eight  inches,  averaging  about  four  inches,  according  to  re- 
ports. Although  there  are  growers,  mostly  in  the  eastern  third  of  the 
state,  who  contend  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  leave  any  growth,  and  that 
late  close  cutting  does  not  injure  the  stand,  most  growers  consider  it 
the  best  practice  to  make  the  last  mowing  so  far  in  advance  of  the  first 
killing  frost  that  there  will  be  sufficient  growth  for  protection  and  for 
catching  the  winter  snows.  The  plants  are  protected,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, from  the  ill  effects  of  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  the 


68  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

moisture  of  the  snows  is  retained  for  the  use  of  the  plants.  Late,  close 
pasturing  is  subject  to  conditions  alike  to  those  of  late,  close  mowing. 
The  date  of  the  last  cutting  or  the  time  to  remove  animals  from  pasture 
varies  greatly  with  the  season,  and  one  may,  therefore,  easily  make  a 
mistake.  One  grower  states  that  when  he  finds  that  he  has  made  too 
late  and  close  a  mowing  it  is  his  invariable  custom  to  cover  the  field  with 
coarse  manure. 


FIG.  58.  How  late  cutting  killed  alfalfa.  That  to  the  left  of  the  picture  was 
cut  five  times  in  a  season,  and  that  to  the  right  four  times. — [Courtesy  Breeder' '« 
Gazette.] 

RAIN  AT  CUTTING  TIME. 

"What  do  you  do  in  case  of  rain  when  alfalfa  is  at  the  right  stage  to 
cut?"  was  asked  of  the  growers.  Of  course  every  one  "does  the  best  he 
can."  The  probability  of  more  rain  in  the  immediate  future  may  vary 
with  different  sections,  and  thus  have  its  effect  on  the  grower's  actions 
under  such  circumstances.  Also,  the  acreage  to  be  cut  will  have  its  in- 
fluence. In  the  western  third  of  the  state,  where  the  probabilities  of 
clearing  weather  in  the  immediate  future  are  better,  the  majority  of  the 
growers  prefer  to  wait  until  it  is  through  raining;  in  the  central  and 
eastern  thirds  of  the  state,  where  the  bulk  of  the  alfalfa  is  grown,  most 
growers  prefer  to  cut  and  "take  their  chances"  of  getting  the  hay  up 
between  showers.  Rain  on  alfalfa  while  it  is  yet  green  and  has  not  started 
to  cure  seems  to  do  little  injury.  It  is  the  rain  that  falls  on  alfalfa  which 
is  partially  cured  that  does  the  harm.  One  thing  that  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  is  that  the  shoots  of  the  next  crop  should  not  be  cut  off, 
and  in  case  of  waiting  for  it  to  stop  raining  one  should  not  wait  too 
long,  especially  with  a  large  acreage,  else  these  shoots  will  grow  too 
high.  The  following  are  some  of  the  replies  received: 

Cheyenne  county:   "Wait  till  favorable  weather." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  69 

Hodgeman  county:   "Wait  till  it  dries  off." 

Thomas  county:  "I  like  to  wait  till  the  weather  is  dry — at  least  two 
days — so  that  I  can  get  it  shocked  before  it  rains  again." 

Ellis  county:  "We  cut  it  and  cure  it  the  best  we  can.  Alfalfa  that 
looks  like  it  is  rotten  we  find  to  be  of  about  as  good  a  feeding  value  as 
the  brightest  hay,  for  cattle.  This  is  our  experience  after  feeding  it  a 
good  many  years." 

Neosho  county:  "I  have  200  acres,  and  don't  pay  much  attention  to 
the  rain  in  regard  to  cutting." 

Wallace  county:  "I  don't  pay  any  attention  to  the  weather,  but  keep 
on  mowing,  unless  it  is  raining  or  is  too  muddy  to  mow.  Alfalfa  cured 
in  damp,  cloudy  weather  usually  conies  out  of  the  stack  in  better  shape 
than  when  it  is  cut  and  cured  in  extremely  hot  weather." 


FIG.  59.  With  a  large  aci'eage  it  is  necessary  to  start  a  number  of  mowers  early 
in  the  maturity  of  the  crop  and  early  each  morning,  in  order  to  get  the  old  crop  out 
of  the  way  of  the  new. —  [Courtesy  Farmers'  Review.] 

Franklin  county :   "I  never  watch  the  clouds  until  I  get  it  cut." 

Brown  county:   "Cut.    As  long  as  it  is  green  the  rain  does  not  seem 
to  hurt  it." 

Harvey  county:   "Cut  it  just  before  a  rain — just  so  the  sun  don't  get 
at  it  before  the  rain  comes." 

Republic  county:   "Never  stop  for  rain,  as  it  will  not  hurt  so  long  as 
it  does  not  cure." 

Shawnee  county:   "If  I  think  it  will  rain  I  cut  down  all  I  can  just  be- 
fore.   I  can  have  it  up  before  the  next  shower." 

Geary  county:  "Cut  it  in  the  rain,  and  be  ready,  when  the  sun  shines, 
to  put  it  up." 

Crawford  county :   "Wait  as  long  as  you  can.     If  it  gets  a  rain  on  be- 
fore it  begins  to  cure  it  does  no  injury." 

Chautauqua  county :   "Wait  a  few  days ;  but  if  new  growth  starts,'  cut 
.and  get  it  off  the  ground  regardless  of  consequences  to  that  cutting." 

Montgomery  county:  "Wait,  and  run  the  mower  as  soon  as  the  ground 
will  permit." 


70  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  60.     Mower  with  windrowing  attachment. 
[Courtesy  Hoard's  Dairyman.] 

TIME   OF   DAY   TO   CUT. 

To  get  hay  of  the  best  quality,  most  growers  agree,  it  is  best  to  cut 
when  no  dew  or  rain  is  on  it.  Hay  cut  with  "outside"  moisture  on  it  is 
likely  to  be  dusty,  musty,  bleached,  and  with  less  of  the  aroma  that  goes 
with  hay  of  prime  quality.  The  great  majority  of  growers  prefer  to 
start  the  mower  in  the  morning  after  the  dew  is  off  and  run  it  till  noon. 
Those  who  have  large  acreages,  while  agreeing  that  waiting  until  the 
dew  is  off  will  make  better  hay,  usually  start  as  early  in  the  morning  os 
they  can  and  cut  as  late  as  they  can,  so  that  they  may  get  the  present 
cuting  out  of  the  way  of  the  one  that  is  to  follow.  There  are  a  few 
who  prefer  to  cut  in  late  afternoon  and  allow  the  hay  to  lay  overnight 
in  the  swath,  raking  in  the  following  morning  after  the  dew  is  off.  They 
claim  that  dew  on  newly-mown  hay  does  little  damage,  and  they  can 
then  get  the  hay  well  cured  and  in  the  stack  or  mow  on  the  afternoon  of 
the  day  following  mowing.  Not  a  few  assert  that  alfalfa  cut  with  the 
dew  on  does  not  gum  the  sickle,  and  cuts  easier,  while  there  are  others 
who  say  that  wet  alfalfa  will  clog  the  mower.  However,  it  would  appear 
that  the  effect  on  the  hay  rather  than  that  on  the  mower'  should  be  the 
first  consideration  as  to  the  time  of  day  to  mow.  Here  are  some  opinions 
about  it: 

Nemaha  county:  "As  soon  as  dew  is  off  in  morning.  Dew  dries  off 
better  before  than  after  cutting." 

Marshall  county:  "After  dew  is  off.  It  spoils  more  easily  with  mois- 
ture on  it  than  with  moisture  in  it." 

Harvey  county:  "Usually  let  the  dew  dry,  as  it  seems  to  bleach  the 
hay  if  we  cut  wet  and  the  sun  comes  out  strong." 

Miami  county:  "Soon  as  dew  is  gone.  Cures  better  and  gives  hay 
better  color." 

Miami  county:  "Always  after  the  dew  is  off.  Dew  or  rain  will  make 
dust." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  71 

Sedgwick  county:  "About  eight  o'clock,  so  there  won't  be  so  much 
dew  on  it.  The  dust  will  stick  on  dewy  alfalfa  and  make  dusty  hay." 

Geary  county :  "In  dry,  settled  weather  mowing  in  the  morning  usually 
allows  raking  the  same  evening  and  saves  exposure  to  dew.  Sometimes 
mowing  in  the  evening  allows  some  curing  without  sun,  which  is  an  ad- 
vantage. When  the  ground  is  wet  or  the  crop  heavy,  cut  any  time  and 
rake  when  ready." 

Riley  county:  "In  the  morning,  generally,  so  as  to  put  up  in  after- 
noon what  we  mow  that  morning." 

Ellis  county:  "We  start  the  mower  in  the  morning,  very  early,  and 
rake  it  in  the  afternoon.  One  day  cures  it  here,  and  if  you  leave  it  ttfo 
long  you  lose  the  leaves." 

Dickinson  county:  "In  hot,  dry  weather  at  noon;  in  cool  weather  in 
the  morning;  so  it  will  dry  and  can  be  raked  at  nine  or  ten  o'clock  the 
next  morning." 

Wallace  county :  "Early,  unless  dew  is  very  heavy.  Would  prefer  to 
wait  .until  dew  was  off,  but  too  many  acres  to  cut  over  to  wait." 

Wabaunsee  county :  "After  the  dew  is  off  the  alfalfa,  because  the  hay 
does  not  cure  as  well  when  it  is  cut  with  the  dew  on  it,  and  also  because 
cutting  it  with  the  dew  on  it  has  an  injurious  effect  on  the  next  crop." 

Harvey  county:  "Depends  on  weather  conditions.  If  there  is  a  heavy 
dew  I  prefer  to  cut  in  the  afternoon." 

Republic  county:  "About  two  p.  m.  The  leaves  do  not  wilt;  they  ab- 
sorb moisture  during  the  night,  and  we  can  stack  the  next  day.  We 
have  cut  our  alfalfa  the  past  four  years  in  the  afternoon  and  evening, 
and  find  that  it  cures  well  and  the  foliage  never  falls,  even  if  very  dry. 
We  are  always  ready  to  stack  the  next  afternoon,  unless  cloudy  and 
rainy." 

(See  pages  241  to  243.) 

CURING. 

In  curing  we  are  concerned,  first  of  all,  with  the  time  to  start  the  rake 
— with  just  how  long  the  alfalfa  should  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the  swath 
where  it  falls  from  the  mower.  Analysis  of  reports  indicates  that  alfalfa 
should  not  be  raked  until  it  is  well  wilted — wilted  to  the  point  where  the 
rake  will  pick  it  up  clean,  without  packing  or  wadding;  and  it  should  be 
raked  before  it  becomes  so  brittle  that  the  leaves  develop  a  tendency  to 
fall  off.  Some  growers  say,  "Rake  while  quite  tough." 

The  time  required  for  cut  alfalfa  to  get  into  the  right  condition  for 
raking  varies  with  the  weather,  from  an  hour  or  two  to  as  long  as  forty- 
eight  or  seventy-two  hours.  On  a  dry,  sunshiny  day,  with  a  strong  wind, 
the  time  may  be  very  short,  while  on  a  damp,  rainy  day,  with  showers, 
possibly,  the  time  may  exceed  even  seventy-two  hours.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  hay  cut  in  bright,  warm  weather  is  mowed  in  the  morning  and 
raked  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  and  hay  cut  in  cloudy  weather 
is  mowed  in  the  morning  and  raked  in  the  morning  of  the  following  day. 
However,  the  curing  of  alfalfa  hay  is  a  fine  art,  and  as  the  best  of  artists 
fail,  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down.  Some  growers'  reports,  which  are 
representative  of  the  rest,  follow : 

Franklin  county:  "Till  it  is  well  wilted.  In  very  dry  weather  rake 'in 
windrows  right  after  mower." 


72 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  73 

Saline  county:  "Sometimes  over  one  day.  At  other  times  mow  in 
morning  and  rake  and  cock  in  afternoon,  especially  if  it  is  hot  and  dry." 

Labette  county:  "Jn  good  drying  weather  let  it  get  just  well  wilted. 
In  damp  weather  let  it  cure  until  nearly  dry  enough  to  haul." 

Mitchell  county:  "Depends  on  weather.  If  alfalfa  is  very  heavy  it 
ought  to  lie  in  the  swath  twenty-four  hours;  if  not,  it  may  be  raked  the 
same  day  it  is  cut.  Don't  let  it  get  too  dry." 

Labette  county:  "One  to  three  days;  depends  on  sunshine." 

Pottawatomie  county:  "If  there  is  sunshine  it  should  be  raked  five 
hours  after  it  is  cut,  and  left  in  the  windrow.  Most  people  let  their 
alfalfa  get  too  dry  before  they  rake  it." 

Pratt  county:  "Depends  on  the  wind.  On  a  dry,  windy  day  rake  two 
hours  after  cutting." 

Sherman  county :  "From  one-half  day  to  twenty-four  hours,  according 
to  the  weather." 

Sumner  county:  "Owing  to  the  weather.  Let  it  lay  longer  if  humidity 
is  plentiful." 

Russell  county:  "When  the  leaves  are  wilted  soft,  but  not  yet  brittle." 

Ottawa  county :  "Depends  on  condition  of  weather,  how  long  it  is  left 
in  swath.  We  start  the  rake  as.soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  to  rake  clean, 
and  before  the  leaves  begin  to  shatter." 

Rawlins  county :  "I  start  the  rake  just  as  soon  as  it  will  rake  clean." 
Morris  county:   "Just  as  soon  as  wilted  and  the  rake  will  take  hold." 

Wichita  county:  "I  aim  to  rake  as  soon  as  the  hay  will  not  pack  or 
wad." 

Nearly  all  growers  believe  that  hay  of  the  highest  quality  is  best  ob- 
tained by  slow  curing,  and  that  curing  is  best  done  by  air  under  the 
more  or  less  shaded  conditions  obtaining  in  a  pile  of  some  kind.  Ob- 
viously the  swath  is  a  very  poor  place  to  cure  hay,  and  reports  indicate 
that  hay  cured  in  this  way  is  of  poor  quality  and  subject  to  an  excessive 
loss  of  leaves.  The  best  results  are  usually  obtained  by  cock  curing.  By 
this  method  the  color  and  aroma  are  better,  and  the  danger  of  spoilage 
from  outside  moisture,  of  getting  dusty  hay,  and  the  loss  of  leaves,  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  Yet,  in  spite  of  these  facts,  two-thirds  of  the 
growers  reporting  prefer  to  cure  in  the  windrow. 

The  reason  for  the  greater  preference  for  windrow  curing  may  be  ac- 
counted for  in  the  facts  that  it  takes  longer  to  put  up  hay  by  the  "cock" 
method,  and  requires  more  hand  labor,  which  is  expensive.  Haying  ma- 
chinery has  been  so  developed  that  large  quantities  of  hay  may  be  most 
quickly  and  economically  handled,  by  fewer  men,  where  the  "windrow" 
method  is  followed.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  handling  of  large 
acreages.  Cocking  seems  better  adapted  to  and  is  most  generally  pre- 
ferred on  the  smaller  acreages  and  in  the  more  humid  regions.  Most 
growers  would  rather  have  hay  in  the  cock,  in  case  of  rain,  than  in  the 
windrow.  Weather  conditions,  however,  generally  demand  that  hay  that 
is  "down"  be  handled  as  quickly  as  possible;  and  when  it  is  cured,  the 
sooner  it  is  in  the  stack,  the  shed  or  the  mow,  the  better,  both  for  the 
present  crop  of  hay  and  for  the  next  crop. 


74 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 


•ss. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


75 


76  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Hay  is  put  in  the  windrow  with  either  the  sulky  rake  or  the  side- 
delivery  rake.  (See  Figs.  61  and  84.)  If  it  is  to  be  cured  in  the  wind- 
row it  is  permitted  to  lie  where  the  rake  leaves  it;  but  if  it  is  to  be  cured 
in  the  cock,  the  cocks  are  immediately  made  up  from  the  windrow.  Some- 
times, to  cause  a  more  thorough  drying,  especially  where  it  has  been 
rained  on,  hay  in  the  windrow  is  turned  over  with  the  side-delivery  rake 
or  the  sulky  rake,  or  the  hay  tedder  may  be  used  on  it.  Cocking  is 
probably  best  done  with  pitchforks,  one  forkful  at  a  time,  carefully 
placed.  Some  growers  make  their  cocks  by  bunching  with  the  sulky  rake 
and  patching  up  a  little  with  the  pitchforks.  The  most  popular  size  of 
cock  is  one  that  is  comparatively  small,  of  about  two  big  pitchforkfuls. 
One  grower  says  that  a  cock  weighing  100  pounds  is  big  enough. 

The  time  required  for  hay  to  cure  in  the  windrow,  in  good  weather,  is 
about  twenty-four  hours,  while  the  time  required  to  cure  in  the  cock  is, 
on  the  average,  about  forty-eight  hours,  and  may  vary  from  one  to  four 
or  five  days.  On  being  asked,  "How  soon  after  mowing  can  hay  bo 
placed  in  stack,  shed  or  mow?"  the  growers,  when  their  replies  had  been 
analyzed  and  averaged,  estimated  as  follows :  Cured  in  the  windrow,  it 
requires  an  average  of  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours  from  time  of  mow- 
ing till  time  of  storing,  in  good  weather,  and  a  day  or  two  longer  in  bad 
weather;  cured  in  the  cock,  it  requires  sixty  to  seventy-two  hours  in  good 
weather,  and  longer  in  bad  weather.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  hard-and- 
fast  rule,  as  conditions  are  so  variable,  in  regard  to  weather,  the  moisture 
content,  and  the  size  of  the  crop. 

CURED   HAY. 

Hay  is  reported  to  be  cured,  and  ready  for  storage,  when: 

1.  No  moisture  can  be  wrung  out  of  a  wisp  twisted  in  the  hand,  and 
the  stems  break. 

2.  It  is  dry  enough  not  to  heat  or  mold,  and  still  not  so  dry  as  to  cause 
a  preventable  loss  of  leaves. 

3.  The  leaves  are  quite  dry  and  practically  all  the  moisture  is  out  of 
the  stems. 

4.  The  stems  are  almost  -brittle. 

5.  It  smells  cured. 

6.  There  is  no  outside  moisture  (dew  or  rain)  on  it. 

7.  So  dry  that  the  tools  will  handle  it  readily  and  it  will  not  roll  under 
the  sweep  rakes. 

8.  For  the  mow,  somewhat  drier  than  for  the  stack,  and  for  horses 
drier  than  for  cattle. 

(See  pages  243  to  245.) 

PLACE  OF   STORAGE. 

To  find  out  the  general  custom  in  storing  hay  the  following  ques- 
tion was  asked:  "Do  you  store  alfalfa  hay  in  the  stack,  the  shed  or 
mow?" 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


77 


' '  TABLE  No.  5.     Percentage  of  growers  storing  in  stack,  in  shed  or  in  mow. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Store  in  stack  

70 

51 

36 

46 

Store  in  shed        .  . 

12 

10 

19 

14 

Store  in  mow  

18 

39 

45 

40 

As  may  be  determined  from  Table  No.  5,  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  growers  reporting  from  the  western  third  of  the  state  stack  their 
hay,  and  less  than  one-third  of  them  store  it  in  the  shed  or  the  mow;  in 
the  central  third  of  the  state  growers  are  evenly  divided  on  the  point; 
while  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  state  the  conditions  of  the  western 
third  are  reversed — that  is,  two-thirds  of  the  growers  store  in  the  shed 
or  the  mow  and  only  one-third  store  in  the  stack.  The  reason  for  this 
variation  probably  lies  in  the  difference  in  the  annual  rainfall  of  the 
regions  mentioned.  Taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  54  per  cent  of  the 
growers  reporting  store  their  alfalfa  hay  in  the  shed  or  the  mow.  Grow- 
ers seem  inclined  to  give  better  protection  to  hay  intended  for  the  market 
than  they  give  to  the  hay  which  is  to  be  fed  on  the  farm.  Reporters, 
living  mostly  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  state,  estimate  that  the  loss  in 
feeding  value  to  hay  stored  in  the  open  is  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  averag- 
ing 29  per  cent,  or  nearly  one-third.  Further  discussion  of  loss  in 
feeding  value  through  exposure  to  the  sun  and  the  rain  may  be  found 
on  pages  245,  259  and  457. 

Growers  differ  widely  in  their  opinions  about  the  economy  of  the  shed 
or  mow,  as  compared  with  the  economy  of  the  stack,  as  a  place  for  stor- 
ing alfalfa  hay.  Here  are  some  expressions  greatly  favoring  shed  and 
mow  storage : 

Brown  county:  "I  have  lost  enough  hay  by  stacking  and  feeding  out- 
side to  pay  for  a  24  by  80  ft.  shed  in  two  seasons." 

Cherokee  county :  "You  will  save  enough  to  build  sheds  in  a  few  years 
by  storing  inside." 

Geary  county:  "Save  in  two  years  the  cost  of  a  barn." 

Geary  county:  "My  shed  is  fifteen  years  old.  I  believe  it  has  saved 
its  cost  twice  or  more." 

Jefferson  county:  "Sheds  will  pay  for  themselves  in  three  years' 
time." 

.  Miami  county:   "If  we  should  stack  hay  outside  we  would  lose  enough 
in  one  year  to  pay  for  building  sheds  for  all  the  hay  we  have." 

Montgomery  county:  "Sheds  pay  total  cost  in  this  section  in  three 
years." 

Doniphan  county:  "Do  not  advise  stacking,  because  you  lose  enough 
hay  in  a  year  to  pay  for  a  barn." 

Labette  county:  "Hay  stored  in  sheds  will  spoil  only  from  being  put 
in  too  green  or  damp.  Uncovered  stacks  will  often  lose  one-third  of  the 
hay  from  taking  water.  In  a  wet  season  sheds  will  pay  cost  the  first 
year." 


78  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Wabaunsee  county :  "When  the  hay  is  stored  in  sheds  it  is  safe  against 
all  kinds  of  weather,  and  can  be  hauled  in  winter  during  storms,  which 
I  believe  more  than  makes  up  for  the  extra  expense  of  the  shed  and  put- 
ting the  hay  in  it." 

Brown  county:  "Stored  in  sheds  there  is  no  waste,  there  is  better 
quality,  less  labor,  and  the  hay  is  easier  to  feed." 

Logan  county :  "Much  more  economical  to  store  in  sheds,  taking  quality 
into  account." 

Hodgeman  county:  "No  comparison.  There  is  always  more  or  less 
loss  every  year  by  stacking." 

Marion  county:  "You  save  a  25  per  cent  loss,  besides  the  convenience 
of  feeding  during  winter,  by  storing  inside." 

Marshall  county:  "A  good  hay  barn  is  a  very  profitable  investment 
on  any  farm,  on  account  of  the  hay  saved." 

Harvey  county:  "Much  better  hay  and  no  waste.  I  have  eight  large 
sheds,  and  think  they  pay." 

Chase  county:  "A  shed  saves  25  per  cent  or  more  if  the  hay  is  in- 
tended for  the  market." 

Dickinson  county:  "The  hay  from  the  shed  or  mow  is  noticeably 
better." 

Ellis  county:  "One  ton  in  barn  is  worth  two  in  stack." 

Lyon  county:  "Sheds  or  barn  best  if  you  don't  feed  to  cattle." 

Norton  county:  "If  hay  is  to  be  kept  for  market  it  will  pay  to  pro- 
tect it." 

Jackson  county:  "It  is  very  hard  to  stack  alfalfa  so  it  will  keep." 
Washington  county:  "Don't  stack  valuable  feed  like  this  outside." 

Douglas  county:  "I  do  not  advise  stacking  in  eastern  Kansas,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rain." 

These  growers  do  not  favor  storing  in  the  shed  or  the  mow: 

Ellis  county :  "I  do  not  think  sheds  or  hay  barns  are  worth  what  they 
cost  in  this  part  of  Kansas." 

Geary  county :  "With  my  method  of  stacking  and  covering  stacks  with 
old  hay,  kafir  or  straw  I  suffer  very  little  loss,  and  my  cattle  eat  all 
damaged  hay." 

Harper  county:  "I  have  only  one  shed,  and  don't  think  they  pay,  as 
it  costs  much  more  to  put  hay  in  a  shed  than  to  stack  in  the  open.  Our 
hay  men  cost  $2.50  per  day,  and  I  put  it  up  as  cheaply  as  possible,  stack- 
ing second  cutting  on  the  first  stack,  which  makes  only  one  roof." 

Comanche  county:   "If  properly  stacked  we  lose  very  little." 

Cowley  county:  "A  stack  made  right  and  covered  with  sheet  iron  is 
all  right  if  rain  does  n't  catch  it  uncovered." 

Franklin  county:  "It  costs  more  to  use  sheds  or  barns.  The  metal 
stack  cover  will  keep  it  just  as  well." 

Geary  county:  "With  my  method  of  stacking  and  covering  there  is 
very  little  loss." 

Jackson  county:  "Stacks  keep  well  if  topped  with  millet  or  slough 
grass." 

Saline  county:  "Very  little  spoils  in  a  well-made  stack." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


79 


Fia.  64.  The  sweep  rake  may  be  used  to  gather  hay  from  the  windrow,  the  swath  or 
the  cock,  and  to  transport  it  to  the  stacker. — [Courtesy  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture. ] 


Sherman  county:  "Hay  must  be  well  cured  to  go  into  the  barn.  I 
prefer  stacking,  except  what  you  feed  in  the  barn." 

Kingman  county:  "Hay  in  barns  will  keep  a  little  better,  but  I  like 
good  stacks  because  they  are  much  handier." 

Harvey  county:  "I  like  the  board  cover,  as  one  does  not  have  to  stack 
his  hay  in  the  same  place  every  year." 

Neosho  county:  "Sheds  will  pay  in  a  small  field,  but  not  where  hay  is 
handled  in  large  quantities  by  machinery." 

Osage  county:  "Hay  for  cattle  is  softer  and  relished  better  when 
from  the  stack." 

Ottawa  county :  "I  don't  think  there  is  economy  in  barns  or  sheds  over 
stacking,  as  on  every  farm  there  is  stock  to  eat  all  hay  that  is  not  sala- 
ble." 

Montgomery  county:  "Where  the  hay  is  all  fed  on  the  farm  the  most 
economical  method  is  stacking,  as  cattle  will  eat  the  waste  hay." 

Finney  county:  "There  is  not  enough  difference  to  pay." 

Russell  county:    "I  don't  think   sheds   a  paying  proposition  in   our 

co-untry." 


80  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Russell  county:  "Sheds  are  good,  but  it  takes  too  long  to  fill  them.  In 
a  dry  country  stacks  are  most  economical." 

Seward  county:  "It  does  n't  pay  to  store  in  barns  in  this  dry  country." 

Trego  county:  "It  is  too  dry  for  building  in  this  country.  There  is 
not  enough  difference." 

It  would  appear,  from  the  replies  received,  that  storing  in  the  shed  or 
in  the  mow  is  most  economical  in  the  eastern  half  of  Kansas,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  the  earlier  and  heavier  cuttings.  In  the  western  half  of 
the  state  it  is  very  likely  that  storage  in  the  stack  is  most  economical. 
(See  page  245.) 

The  tools  used  and  the  methods  followed  in  gathering  hay  from  the 
field  depend  largely  on  whether  the  hay  is  to  be  stored  in  the  stack  or  in 
the  shed  or  mow.  When  stored  in  the  stack  it  is  usually  gathered  from 
the  windrow  and  transported  to  the  stacker  by  means  of  sweep  rakes; 
and  when  stored  in  the  shed  or  the  mow  it  is  usually  hauled  from  the 
field  to  the  shed  or  barn  by  means  of  hay  wagons. 

SWEEP  RAKES. 

Sweep  rakes  are  known  by  various  names,  such  as  "go-devil,"  "buck 
rake,"  "bull  rake,"  "push  rake,"  and  so  on,  but  will  hereinafter  be  known 
only  as  "sweep  rakes."  These  implements,  while  all  working  on  the  same 
principle,  are  of  various  styles.  They  may,  as  with  the  homemade 
"go-devil,"  merely  slide  over  the  surface  of  the  stubble,  with  a  horse  at 
enther  end  of  the  rake  to  allow  a  clean  sweep  of  the  teeth;  or  the  rake 
may  be  elevated  on  two  small  wheels,  for  easier  movement  from  place  to 
place,  with  the  horses  separated  in  the  same  manner;  or  the  rake  may 
be  elevated  on  three  or  even  four  small  wheels,  with  the  horses  directly 
behind,  on  a  tongue,  pushing  it.  The  rake  proper  consists  of  long, 
•straight  wooden  teeth,  sometimes  capped  with  metal,  twelve  or  thirteen  in 
number,  and  spaced  about  one  foot  apart.  These  teeth  slip  along  the 
surface  of  the  ground  to  gather  a  load  of  hay.  When  the  load  is  secured 
by  sweep  rakes  equipped  with  wheels,  the  teeth  are  raised.  The  load, 
when  gathered,  is  hauled  to  the  stack,  where  it  is  deposited  upon  the 
teeth  of  the  stacker,  the  sweep  rake  backing  away  and  going  for  another 
load.  Combinations  of  two  or  more  sweep  rakes  to  each  stacker  work 
together  very  nicely  in  economizing  time  at  the  stack.  Sweep  rakes  may 
be  used  to  gather  hay  out  of  the  windrow,  the  swath,  or  to  pick  up  cocks. 
Sometimes  hay  in  the  windrow  is  bunched  with  the  sulky  rake  for  easy 
picking  up  by  the  sweep  rake.  (See  page  310.) 

STACKERS. 

Where  alfalfa  is  stored  in  the  stack  some  kind  of  a  stacker  is  generally 
used  to  elevate  the  hay  onto  the  stack.  There  are  various  kinds  of  these 
implements.  Most  of  them  have  teeth  for  holding  the  hay,  similar  to 
the  teeth  on  a  sweep  rake  and  of  about  the  same  size.  In  fact,  stackers 
are  built  to  take  the  load  of  a  sweep  rake.  Some  are  portable;  others 
are  semiportable,  that  is,  while  operated  in  a  stationary  position  they  are 
provided  with  wheels  to  facilitate  a  change  from  position  to  position.  The 
method  of  elevation,  however,  is  the  principal  point  of  variance. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


81 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


83 


FIG.  67.     The  combination  sweep  rake  and  stacker  will  place  hay  on  the  stack  in  any  spot  desired. 

[Courtesy  F.  Wyatt  Mfg.  Co.] 

One  very  popular  and  efficient  portable  stacker,  which  is  used  through- 
out the  state,  receives  a  load  of  hay  on  its  teeth  from  the  sweep  rake,  and 
through  the  power  transmitted  by  traction  wheels  the  load  is  elevated 
to  the  desired  height  as  the  horses  push  the  stacker  toward  the  stack,  a 
lever  being  released  when  the  desired  height  is  attained.  The  weight 
of  the  hay  dumps  the  load  when  another  lever  is  released.  When  the 
stacker  is  backed  away  from  the  stack  the  derrick  carrying  the  teeth  is 
automatically  lowered;  or  it  may  be  lowered  by  a  lever  and  its  descent 
controlled  by  a  brake.  It  may  back  away  from  the  stack,  or  it  may  be 
turned  at  right  angles  to  the  stack,  to  receive  another  load.  It  elevates 
from  500  to  700  pounds  of  hay  in  one  load,  and  is  said  to  go  through  the 
operation  of  receiving  and  placing  a  load  in  from  three  to  five  minutes, 
depending  upon  the  skfll  of  the  operator.  It  will  place  hay  on  the  stack 
in  any  spot  desired,  from  either  side  or  either  end,  and  will  build  a  stack 
from  twenty  to  Jwenty-three  feet  in  height.  This  implement  also  is  said 
to  be  usable  for  loading  wagons  and  for  filling  hay  sheds,  and  if  desired, 
may  be  used  as  a  combination  sweep  rake  and  stacker. 

Then  there  is  the  overshot  stacker,  which  is  anchored  in  position  and 
receives  the  hay  from  one  side  only.  The  teeth  are  elevated  and  the  load 
is  lifted  clear  over  the  head  or  central  pivoting  point,  and  dumped  from 
the  opposite  side  of  the  stacker  onto  the  stack.  The  power  to  elevate 
is  furnished  by  a  team  of  horses  attached  to  the  end  of  a  cable  running 
through  pulleys. 

Another  kind  of  stacker  is  the  swinging  stacker.  It  receives  the  hay 
at  one  side,  and  then  elevates  and  swings  the  load  sidewise  to  the  stack, 
by  power  like  that  of  the  overshot  stacker. 


84 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  68.    The  overshot  stacker  lifts  the  load  over  the  central  pivoting  point  and  dumps  it  on  the 
stack. — [Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Company.] 


FIG.  69.    The  swinging  stacker  elevates  and  swings  the  load  sidewise  to  the  stack. 
[Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


85 


86 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


87 


Still  other  methods  of  stacking  are  the  pole-and-boom  and  the  poles- 
and-cable  methods.  With  the  pole-and-boom  method,  a  pole,  held  in  posi- 
tion by  guy  wires,  ropes,  braces  or  other  supports,  has  a  swinging  boom, 
to  which  are  attached  pulleys,  cables  and  large  horse  hay  forks  or  slings. 
With  the  poles-and-cable  method  a  cable,  on  which  hay  carriers  work,  is 
stretched  between  two  poles.  With  both  these  latter  methods  the  hay 
is  usually  taken  from  wagons.  They  are  little  used.  (See  page  314.) 

STACKS   AND   STACKING. 

From  those  who  use  the  stack  as  a  means  of  storage  an  effort  was 
made  to  learn  the  kind  of  stack  that  is  preferred  and  the  method  of  its 
construction.  There  are  two  different  types  of  stacks,  the  rectangular 
and  the  round. 

TABLE  No.  6.     Growers'  preference  as  to  rectangular  vs.  round  stacks. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

9 

20 

35 

23 

Preferring  rectangular  stacks  

91 

80 

65 

77 

FIG.  72.    A  common  style  of  pole  and  boom  stacker. 


88 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


The  average  size  of  rectangular  stack  reported  is  16  feet  in  width,  37 
feet  in  length  and  19  feet  in  height.  The  width  varies  from  twelve  to  20 
feet,  the  length  from  25  to  40  feet  and  the  height  from  18  to  20  feet. 
Reports  indicate  that  the  best  stacks  are  from  18  to  20  feet  in  width,  as 
high  as  the  stacker  will  make  them,  and  as  long  as  the  distance  to  haul 
the  hay  economically  will  admit.  Sometimes,  where  well-protected  stacks 
do  not  reach  their  full  height  until  all  the  cuttings  for  the  season  have 
been  made,  they  are  started  with  the  first  cutting,  and  each  additional 
cutting  is  placed  on  top  of  the  preceding  one  until  the  stack  is  topped  out 
with  the  last  cutting. 


FIG.  73.    A  stacking  outfit  that  handles  from  50  to  75  tons  a  day. 
[Courtesy  Farmers'  Review.] 


FIG.  74.    The  poles-and-cable  method  of  stacking, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


89 


The  diameter  preferred  for  the  round  stack  varies  from  16  to  20  feet, 
averaging  17  feet,  at  the  base  or  surface  of  the  ground.  About  8  feet  up 
from  the  base  it  is  customary  to'  make  a  bulge,  so  that  the  diameter  at 
the  bulging  point  shall  be  about  24  or  25  feet.  From  the  bulging  point 
upward  the  stack  is  tapered  to  a  rounded  point.  The  average  height  re- 
ported for  round  stacks  is  25  feet. 

There  is  a  certain  amount  of  waste  in  every  stack,  caused  by  ex- 
posure to  the  weather,  and  the  larger  the  stack  the  smaller  will  be  the 
proportionate  loss  therefrom.  Considerable  loss  also  may  be  avoided  by 
allowing  the  stack  to  rest  upon  a  platform  of  timber  or  a  layer  of  straw 
or  old  hay,  rather  than  allowing  it  to  rest  directly  upon  the  ground.  In 
building  any  sort  of  stack  the  stacker  should  be  careful  to  keep  the  sides 


FIG.   75.    The  rectangular  stack  is  most  popular.      It  should  be  topped  out  with 
slough  grass  or  old  hay,  or  otherwise  covered,  and  weighted  down. 


FIG.  76.    Well-made  round  stacks,  without  the  bulge. 
[Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


90 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  77.  A  slovenly  round  stack,  which  may  easily  soak  in 
rain,  fall  over,  or  be  blown  apart  by  winds. —  [Courtesy  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.] 

"squared  up"  at  all  times  and  the  middle  always  rounding  full.  The  top 
should  be  well  rounded,  and  not  of  a  straight,  sloping  nature.  Alfalfa  hay 
settles  a  great  deal,  and  too  much  care  can  not  be  exercised  in  so  shaping 
the  stack  that  it  will  be  least  likely  to  soak  in  the  rain,  fall  over,  or  be 
blown  apart  by  the  winds.  For  further  insurance  against  damage  by 
winds,  hay  is  often  weighted  down;  that  is,  long  wires,  to  the  ends  of 
which  are  attached  rocks  or  other  weights,  are  thrown  across  the  stack. 
As  alfalfa  hay  does  not  readily  shed  rain  of  itself,  some  method  of 
protection  is  usually  practiced.  The  crudest  method  is  to  top  out  the 
stack  with  slough  grass  or  some  cheap  kind  of  hay.  Much  better  for 
this  purpose  are  the  various  kinds  of  stack  covers,  made  of  canvas,  boards 
or  metal,  which  should  be  well  weighted  down.  (See  Figs.  79  to  83.) 

STORING  IN   SHED  OR   MOW. 

Hay  stored  in  the  shed  or  mow  is  usually  hauled  in  from  the  field  with 
a  wagon.  Hay  wagons  may  be  loaded  either  with  pitchforks  or  with  hay 
loaders.  Because  of  the  fact  that  side-delivery  rakes  are  generally  used 
in  connection  with  hay  loaders,  we  will  first  consider  side-delivery  rakes. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


91 


FIG.  78.    The  bulge  in  a  stack. 
[Courtesy  Farmers'  Review.] 


PlO.  79.    A  stack  cover  of  metal  to  protect  the  hay  from  the  weather. 
[Courtesy  Farmers'  Review.] 


92 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  80.    A  great  many  farmers  use  canvas  stack  covers. —  [Courtesy  Hoard's  Dairyman.] 


FIG.  81.    Board  stack  covers  in  use. —  [Courtesy  Stowe  Supply  Company.] 


If 

n 

r/>w 


FIG.  82.    The  details  of  how  a  board  stack  cover  may 
be  made. —  [Courtesy  Stowe  Supply  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


93 


SIDE-DELIVERY  RAKE. 

TABLE  No.  7.     Popularity  of  the  side-delivery  rake. 


1 

Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

For  side-delivery  rake  .  

8 

24 

63 

40 

Against  side-delivery  rake  
No  experience  with  side-delivery  rake  

29 
53 

38 
38 

20 
17 

30 
30 

FIG.  84.    The  side-delivery  rake  works  well  with  the  hay  loader.     It  leaves  the 
hay  in  windrows  for  curing. —  [Courtesy  Farmers'  Review.] 

The  arguments  for  the  side-delivery  rake  are : 

1.  It  leaves  the  hay  in  better  shape  for  curing. 

2.  It  is  an  excellent  tool  for  turning  hay  in  the  windrow  in  case 
of  rain. 

3.  It  is  a  better  tool  for  use  in  connection  with  a  seed  crop,  because, 
it  is  said,  less  handling  is  necessary. 

4.  It  is  essential  where  a  hay  loader  is  used. 

5.  It  is  particularly  useful  in  case  of  heavy  hay. 

6.  It  is  economical  in  large  fields. 

The  arguments  against  the  side-delivery  rake  are: 

1.  It  has  a  tendency  to  twist  the  hay  and  leave  it  in  the  form  of  a 
rope. 

2.  It  does  slower  work  than  a  sulky  rake. 

3.  It  does  not  leave  the  hay  in  so  good  a  shape  for  the  sweep  rakes  as 
does  the  sulky  rake. 

(See  page  310.) 


94 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  85.    Those  who  favor  the  hay  loader  usually  store  their  hay  in  shed  or  barn.     It  gathers  hay 
from  the  windrow  or  the  swath. —  [Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Company.] 

THE   HAY   LOADER. 

Hay  loaders  are  used  only  in  case  the  hay  is  hauled  from  the  field  in 
wagons  (hay  racks),  and  they  may  be  used  to  gather  hay  only  from  the 
windrow  or  the  swath. 


TABLE  No.  8.     Popularity  of  the  hay  loader. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
•  whole, 
per  cent. 

For  the  hay  loader  ^  

22 

21 

59 

37 

Against  the  hay  loader 

53 

31 

31 

33 

No  experience  with  the  hay  loader  

25 

48 

10 

30 

Those  who  favor  the  hay  loader  store  their  hay  in  the  shed  or  the 
barn,  while  those  who  are  against  it  store  their  hay  in  the  stack,  and 
report  that  the  loader  does  not  work  well  with  their  system  of  storage. 
It  is  also  reported  that  the  hay  loader  best  adapted  to  handling  alfalfa  is 
of  the  kind  that  has  endless  aprons  or  strap  carriers  to  take  up  the  hay, 
as  loaders  pushing  the  hay  up  with  spiked  wooden  strips  are  not  efficient 
and  knock  off  many  leaves.  The  chief  complaint  against  the  hay  loader  is 
the  complaint  that  it  knocks  off  leaves.  (See  page  317.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


95 


FIG.  86.    Hay  is  often  loaded  on  wagons  with  pitchforks,  particularly  by  those  having 
the  smaller  acreages. —  [Courtesy  Iowa  Experiment  Station.] 


FIG.  87.    Putting  hay  in  the  barn  with  single  harpoon  fork,  carrier  and  track.     The  power  here 
is  furnished  by  gasoline  engine. —  [Courtesy  Farm  and  Fireside.] 


96 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Pio. 


Taking  hay  from  the  wagon  with  two  double  harpoon  forks,  carrier  and  track.     This  showi 
the  details  of  the  arrangement. — [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


97 


LOADING  HAY  WAGONS   BY   HAND. 

Hay  may  be  loaded  onto  wagons  by  means  of  hand  labor  and  pitch- 
forks as  well  as  by  hay  loaders,  and  this  method  is  still  practiced  to  a 
large  extent,  particularly  by  those  having  the  smaller  acreages.  In 
loading  hay  on  the  wagon  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  "sides" 
go  up  square  and  that  the  "middle"  is  kept  well  filled.  It  is  also  well  to 
so  place  the  hay  on  the  wagon  that  it  may  be  easily  unloaded,  especially 
if  it  is  to  be  put  into  the  mow  by  hand.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  a 
layer  along  the  outside  and  then  filling  in  the  middle,  and  repeat.  A  layer 
from  the  middle  may  then  be  unloaded  first,  followed  by  one  from  the 
outside,  and  so  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  load.  (See  page  331.) 

PUTTING  HAY  IN  SHED  OR  BARN. 

When  hay  is  put  in  the  barn  or  the  shed,  forks,  slings,  pulleys,  car- 
riers and  tracks  are  generally  used.  They  are  occasionally  used  in 
stacking  also.  Of  the  hay  forks  used,  the  grapple  forks,  which  work 
something  after  the  manner  of  ice  tongs,  are  most  popular.  The  double- 
harpoon  forks  also  are  often  used.  Other  forks  used  are  those  known 
as  the  "single-harpoon"  and  the  "derrick."  A  hay  sling  is  a  net-like 


FIG.  89.    Position  of  slings  on  a  wagon  loaded  with  hay, 
shown  in  outline. —  [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


FIG.   90.    Gathering  the  ends  of  the  sling  together. 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


98 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


arrangement  of  ropes  and  wooden  bars  used  to  lift  a  bundle  of  hay. 
Formerly  it  was  the  custom  of  many  to  use  slings  exclusively  in  unload- 
ing a  wagon,  making  three  or  four  slingloads  of  each  wagonload;  but  it 
is  now  the  custom  to  use  both  the  fork  and  the  sling  in  unloading.  With 
the  present  method  only  one  sling  is  used,  and  that  for  the  bottom  of  the 
load,  the  upper  portion  being  removed  with  a  fork.  Both  forks  and  slings 
are  dumped  by  means  of  a  tripping  arrangement,  which  is  released  with 
a  trip  rope. 


FIG.  91.  When  the  power  is  applied  the 
load  is  gathered  into  a  compact  bundle. — 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


FIG.  92.  When  released  by  the  trip  rope  the  sling- 
load  drop.s  ijat  on  the  rest  of  the  hay  in  the  mow. — 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 

Generally,  hay  is  taken  in  at  the  ends  of  sheds  or  barns.  When  it  is 
hoisted  from  the  wagon,  the  forks  or  slings  become  attached  to  what 
is  known  as  a  carrier.  A  carrier  supports  the  load  and  transports  it  to 
the  dumping  point.  It  has  small  wheels  that  run  on  overhead  tracks. 
These  tracks  may  be  arranged  with  switches,  so  that  the  hay  can  be 
dumped  in  different  parts  of  the  building.  Tracks  are  of  steel,  of  wood, 
and  sometimes  of  wire  cable.  A  weight  attached  to  the  end  of  a  rope, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


99 


which  runs  through  a  pulley,  returns  the  carrier  to  the  point  of  loading. 
The  power  that  hoists  the  hay,  and  also  pulls  it  in  over  the  track,  is  had 
by  hitching  a  team  or  an  engine  onto  the  end  of  a  long  cable  which  runs 
through  pulleys. 


ROPE  TO  TRIP  5LING 
FIG.  93.    The  details  of  the  sling  arrangement. —  [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


100 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG  94  The  principles  of  unloading  by  machinery,  somewhat  out  of  proportion,  showing 
how  power  is  applied  and  how  the  load  is  transported  to  different  parts  of  the  building. — 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


RIDGEPOLE  BRACKET 


Fia    95     How  the  track  is  fastened  to  the  building. 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


101 


FIG.  96.   Hay  is  generally  taken  i  i  at  the  ends  of  sheds  or  barns. 
[Courtesy  Farmers  Mail  and  Breeze.] 


FIG.  97.    Filling  a  shed  with  a  portable  stacker. —  [Courtesy  F.  Wyatt  Mfg.  Co.] 


102 


'Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Fia.  98.  Filling,  with  a  swinging  stacker,  a  hay  barn  equipped  with  a  sliding  roof  door. 

By  these  methods  hay  may  be  placed  in  a  mow  or  shed  with  much 
greater  ease,  speed  and  economy  than  by  means  of  pitchforks.  It  is  well 
to  use  large  pulleys  and  ropes  and  to  keep  the  carriers  and  pulleys  well 
oiled,  for  trouble  with  the  apparatus  when  putting  up  hay  may  delay 
a  number  of  men,  whose  "time"  goes  on  while  the  trouble  is  adjusted. 
(See  pages  317  to  323.) 

In  filling  hay  sheds  it  is  the  practice  with  some  to  let  the  space  be- 
tween two  poles  serve  as  a  compartment  or  section,  and  to  fill  each  com- 
partment separately  before  going  ahead  with  the  next.  With  others  it  is 
a  common  custom  to  spread  the  first  cutting  all  over  the  floor  of  the 
shed,  and  to  place  each  succeeding  cutting  on  top  of  its  predecessor.  By 
the  time  the  second  cutting  is  ready  for  storage  the  first  cutting  of  hay 
becomes  well  settled,  and  so  on,  the  shed  thus  being  filled  to  its  fullest 
capacity  with  well-settled  hay. 

HAY   SHEDS. 

Hay  sheds  are  made  for  protection  against  precipitation  and  sun- 
shine; hence  it  is  necessary  only  to  make  them  strong,  so  that  the  wind 
will  not  blow  them  down,  and  make  the  roofs  and  a  part  of  the  sides 
water-tight.  The  reported  average  length  of  hay  sheds  is  about  71  feet, 
varying  from  60  to  100  feet;  the  average  width  is  34  feet,  varying  from 
20  to  60  feet;  and  the  average  height  to  the  eaves  is  19  feet,  varying 
from  14  to  22  feet.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  average 
shed  is  about  70  feet  long,  34  feet  wide,  and  20  feet  high  at  the  eaves. 
Such  a  shed  will  hold  about  125  tons  of  alfalfa  hay,  on  a  basis,  estimated 
from  the  reports  received,  that  a  ton  of  alfalfa  occupies  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  381  cubic  feet.  The  cost  of  this  average  shed  is  estimated  at 
$484.  The  reports  indicate  a  variation  in  capacity,  of  the  different  sheds 
reported  on,  of  from  75  to  300  tons,  and  a  variation  in  cost  of  from  $200 
to  $1200. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


:  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Most  sheds  are  little  more  than  roofs  supported  by  large  posts.  These 
supports  may  be  of  native  timber,  red  cedar  or  old  telephone  poles,  and 
are  usually  planted  in  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  set 
in  a  mixture  of  concrete.  They  are  spaced  from  twelve  to  seventeen  feet 
apart  on  either  side  of  the  shed,  with  a  row  down  the  middle  in  case  of  a 
wide  shed.  The  posts  are  topped  with  a  plate.  The  plate  supports  an 
even-span  roof  of  about  one-third  pitch.  The  ridgepole  and  the  rafters 
may  be  of  two-by-six-inch  lumber,  and  the  rafters  may  be  spaced  two  feet 
apart.  Galvanized  iron  is  the  most  popular  roofing  material,  although 
pine  boards  or  other  roofing  material  may  be  used.  It  is  the  custom  to 
prevent  rain  and  snow  from  beating  in  on  the  hay  by  boarding  the  ends 
and  the  sides  down  from  the  eaves  to  within  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the 
ground  with  rough  one-inch  boards,  providing  openings  for  putting  in  the 
hay.  It  is  well  to  avoid  crossbeams  and  other  obstructions  that  might 
interfere  in  filling  the  shed.  However,  the  whole  structure  should  be 
solidly  braced,  as  strength  is  one  of  the  keynotes  in  the  construction  of 
good  hay  sheds. 


PIG.  100.  A  hay  shed  with  an  adjustable  roof.  It  is  about  twenty-five  feet 
square,  the  corner  posts  are  smooth  and  strong,  and  it  is  well  bolted  together.  The 
roof  is  raised  or  lowered  with  rope  and  pulley,  and  is  supported  on  iron  pegs  that 
fit  in  holes  bored  in  the  corner  posts  at  regular  intervals.  With  this  arrangement 
the  rain  can  not  blow  in  on  top  of  the  hay,  whether  the  shed  be  full  or  nearly 
empty.  A  practicable  small-scale  method  of  storage  near  or  in  the  feed  lots. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


105 


As  with  stacks,  loss  caused  by  placing  hay  directly  upon  the  ground 
may  be  avoided  by  constructing  a  platform  of  native  poles  or  old  lumber 
for  the  hay  to  rest  upon.  Such  platforms  admit  of  adequate  ventilation 
underneath  the  hay,  prevent  spoilage  by  surface  water,  and  are  found  in 
all  well-constructed  sheds. 

Some  growers  make  twelve-  to  fourteen-foot  driveways  through  their 
hay  sheds  or  barns.  One  driveway  may  go  lengthwise,  the  full  length  of 
the  shed;  or  a  number  of  driveways  may  go  crosswise  through  the  shed 
at  regular  intervals.  After  the  spaces  on  either  side  of  driveway  have 
been  filled  with  hay,  the  driveway  itself  may  be  filled. 


FIG.  101.    A  combination  hay  and  feeding  shed. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

A  very  economical  shed  for  hay  storage,  where  considerable  live  stock 
enters  into  the  farming  scheme,  is  in  use  by  quite  a  number  of  the  larger 
growers.  This  shed  is  surrounded  on  two  or  three  sides  by  feeding  racks 
and  lean-to  cattle  sheds.  The  hay  is  stored  in  the  central  part  of  the 
structure  in  the  usual  manner,  and  is  fed  in  the  racks  as  needed.  Such  a 
system  involves  a  minimum  amount  of  labor  in  getting  the  hay  to  the 
cattle.  (See  pages  251  to  258.) 

SPONTANEOUS   COMBUSTION. 

Only  4  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  on  the  subject  have  ever  had 
a  fire,  or  personally  known  of  a  fire,  through  spontaneous  combustion  of 
alfalfa  hay.  They  are  located  in  Chautauqua,  Greenwood,  Marshall, 
Montgomery,  Reno,  Sherman,  Wabaunsee  and  Wyandotte  counties. 
Green  or  immature  hay,  and  hay  that  has  foreign  moisture  on  it — rain 
or  dew — is  most  apt  to  give  trouble.  The  condition  is  said  to  be  aggra- 
vated when  green  or  wet  hay  is  put  on  top  of  old  and  dry  hay  already  in 
the  mow. 

The  very  best  remedy  for  spontaneous  combustion  is  prevention — stor- 
ing only  hay  that  is  well  cured  and  free  from  foreign  moisture.  A 
majority  of  the  growers  who  discussed  the  point  agree  that  the  better 
the  ventilation  the  less  danger  there  is  of  fire.  "Hay  wells,"  or  air  shafts 


106 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  102.  One  style 
of  hay  knife. — [Cour- 
tesy Stowe  Supply 
Co.] 


HAY  KNIFE 
SECTION! 


FIG.  103.  Another  style  of  hay 
knife. —  [Courtesy  Stowe  Supply 
Company.] 


from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  mass,  as  well  as  good  ventilation  of  the 
building  in  which  the  hay  is  stored,  were  recommended.  Some  specially 
advise  against  tramping  or  packing  moist  hay.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  growers  who  believe  that  alfalfa  hay  should  have  little  or  no  ventila- 
tion and  that  it  should  be  tightly  packed.  Quite  a  large  number  of 
growers  advocate  the  application  of  from  two  to  three  gallons  of  salt  to 
each  ton  of  hay  stored,  as  a  means  of  fire  prevention,  and  one  grower 
specifies  two  gallons  of  salt  and  one  gallon  of  air-slaked  lime  to  each  ton. 
The  salt  or  lime  is  scattered  over  the  different  layers  of  hay  as  they  are 
put  into  the  mow.  Here  are  some  reports  about  spontaneous  combustion : 

Sherman  county:  "Properly  cured  hay  will  not  take  fire,  but  a  large 
amount  of  alfalfa  hay  which  is  somewhat  green  when  stacked  will  heat 
and  that  heat  may  create  spontaneous  combustion.  Combustion  may  be 
avoided  by  proper  curing  and  storing  in  not-too-large  stacks." 

Geary  county:  "Spontaneous  combustion  may  be  avoided  by  not  stack- 
ing hay  that  is  wet  from  rain  or  dew.  Alfalfa's  own  moisture  will  not 
cause  combustion.  Water  on  hay,  rather  than  in  hay,  is  dangerous." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  107 

Johnson  county:  "Don't  store  it  too  green  or  too  wet.  Alfalfa  will 
stand  its  own  greenness  better  than  wet  from  dew  or  rain." 

Cloud  county:  "If  hay  is  damp  do  not  pile  it  too  deep  in  the  mow. 
About  six  feet  of  depth  for  loose  hay  is  enough." 

Marion  county:  "Thorough  curing  is  the  remedy.  Spreading  in  a 
thin  layer  will  help.  Use  'hay  wells'  for  ventilating  shafts." 

Miami  county:  "Have  space  enough  so  you  can  spread  a  not-too-deep 
layer  of  hay.  It  will  cure  out  from  one  cutting  to  another,  and  you  will 
have  no  trouble." 

Cherokee  county:  "I  haul  from  the  windrow  to  the  barn.  If  not  well 
cured  I  put  two  and  one-half  gallons  of  salt  to  a  ton  of  hay.  That  keeps 
it  from  heating.  By  hauling  it  a  little  green  to  the  barn  it  retains  the 
leaves  better.  The  same  will  apply  in  stacking." 

Jefferson  county:  "Cure  the  hay  sufficiently  before  putting  up.  If 
you  can  not  cure  hay,  add  about  two  gallons  of  salt  and  one  gallon  of  air- 
slaked  lime  per  ton  of  hay." 

Hodgeman  county:    "Watch  your  hay.     Feel  the  heat.     If  it  gets  too 
hot  move  and  air  at  once." 
(See  page  246.) 

MOLDY   HAY. 

The  molding  of  hay  in  stack,  shed  or  mow  is  brought  about  by  the 
same  conditions  that  cause  spontaneous  combustion.  The  only  difference 
is  that  the  conditions  are  present  in  a  lesser  degree.  Therefore,  the  same 
means  of  prevention  and  remedy  should  be  applied  in  a  case  of  molding  as 
are  applied  in  case  of  combustion.  Heating  of  the  hay  is  said  to  destroy 
the  mold  germ,  but  there  is  danger  that  the  heating  may  become  so  in- 
tense as  to  cause  combustion.  Heating  from  the  juices  of  the  plant 
results  in  what  is  known  as  "brown"  hay — a  hay  very  palatable  to  cattle. 

DUSTY   HAY. 

Another  evil  caused  by  dew  or  rain  on  hay  is  the  accumulation  of  small 
particles  of  dust  and  dirt,  which,  when  the  dew  or  rain  is  ,no  longer 
present,  remain  on  the  hay.  Such  hay  is  said  to  be  "dusty." 

BALING. 

Large  quantities  of  baled  alfalfa  hay  are  shipped  out  of  Kansas 
annually.  Aside  from  that  which  is  shipped,  considerable  quantities  are 
baled  and  sold  locally,  and  some  growers  even  bale  it  for  feeding  on  the 
farm,  as  hay  requires  less  storage  space  when  in  the  baled  form.  The 
growers  were  asked:  "Do  you  bale  afalfa  from  the  swath,  the  windrow, 
the  cock,  the  stack,  or  from  the  shed?"  The  replies  to  this  question  indi- 
cate that  most  of  the  baling  of  alfalfa  hay  in  Kansas  is  done  from  the 
shed  or  stack,  after  the  hay  has  gone  through  the  sweat.  It  is  claimed 
that  hay  of  much  higher  quality  is  had  in  this  way.  Of  the  growers 
ivho  have  tried  baling  from  the  windrow  or  cock,  100  per  cent  of  those  re- 
porting from  the  western  third  of  the  state  declare  that  it  is  satisfactory 
providing  the  weather  conditions  are  favorable  and  the  hay  well  cured: 


108 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


109 


110 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


in  the  central  third  of  the  state  85  per  cent  of  those  who  have  tried  it 
consider  the  practice  satisfactory;  while  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  state 
only  56  per  cent  consider  it  satisfactory.  All  insist,  however,  that  the 
weather  must  be  dry  and  the  hay  thoroughly  cured,  and  that  care  must 
be  exercised  in  storing  the  bales  afterwards,  to  prevent  heating. 


FIG.  106.    Baling  by  horsepower. 
[Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 


Fio.  107.  A  premium  is  paid  for  neat,  uniform,  square-ended,  75-pound  bales,  properly  wired 
made  up  of  distinct  layers  of  approximately  the  same  size  and  easily  separable. — [Courtesy  Ann  A 
Machine  Company.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


Ill 


A  report  from  Neosho  county  reads: 

"I  have  never  been  able  to  find  a  way  to  cure  alfalfa  so  it  can  be  baled 
in  the  field  without  bleaching  so  badly  that  the  price  is  affected.  For 
such  hay  I  have  been  unable  to  get  better  than  a  No.  2  grade  on  at  least 
50  per  cent  of  it." 

SIZE  OF   BALE. 

The  type  of  bale  generally  used  is  oblong  in  shape,  the  dimensions 
being  14  by  18  by  36  inches.  Such  bales  will  vary  in  weight  from  about 
65  pounds  up  to  about  85  pounds,  and  usually  weigh  between  70  and  80 
pounds. 

STORING  BALED'  HAY. 

Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  growers  reporting  store  their  baled  al- 
falfa in  barns  or  sheds.  A  few  are  in  the  habit  of  piling  the  bales  out- 
side, in  the  field,  and  covering  them,  but  this  is  not 
considered  the 'best  practice.  Nearly  one-fourth  of 
the  reporters  stated  that  it  is  their  practice  to  load 
cars  direct  from  the  baler  and  ship  immediately.  It 
is  important  that  there  should  be  no. delay  in  getting 
baled  alfalfa  under  cover,  either  by  proper  storing 
or  by  immediate  shipping,  to  avoid  exposure  to  the 
weather. 

Reporters  are  almost  unanimous  in  asserting  that 
bales  should  be  piled  on  edge  when  stored.  A  Mont- 
gomery county  man  wrote :  "Always  stack  on  edge. 
Never  stack  flat  unless  you  want  moldy  edges. 
Leave  spaces  until  dry,  and  restack  closer."  A 
Neosho  • -county  man  wrote:  "Store  in  barns.  I 
stack  the  bales  on  edge,  laying  one  row  of  bales 
across  the  other  to  bind,  and  leave  a  small  air  space 
between  the  sides  of  the  bales."  In  fact,  most  of  the 
growers  mentioned  the  advisability  of  plenty  of 
ventilation  around  and  between  the  bales.  Some  make 
a  practice  of  placing  two-by-four-inch  pieces  of  lumber  on  top  of  each  layer 
of  bales,  as  a  means  of  ventilation.  Baled  hay  should  not  rest  directly 
upon  the  ground. 


FIG.  108.  A  hay  hook, 
for  handling  bales.  — 
[Courtesy  Stowe  Supply 
Company.] 


Fio.  109.    It  is  important  that  there  be  no  delay  in  getting  alfalfa  hay  under  cover. 
[Courtesy  Arizona  Experiment  Station.] 


112 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


113 


A  Miami  county  reporter  writes: 

"I  will  tell  you  my  practice  in  handling  and  baling  alfalfa.  Cut  when 
the  dew  is  off,  and  when  well  wilted  use  a  side-delivery  rake,  throwing 
two  windrows  side  by  side,  but  not  touching.  Let  lay  until  the  next  day 
about  noon;  then  bunch  with  a  sulky  rake  into  small  cocks.  Start  the 
wagons  directly  after  the  sulky  rake.  This  insures  easy  pitching  and 
gets  all  from  the  ground  without  any  trouble.  Fill  the  mow  in  sections, 
so  that  the  hay  can  easily  be  gotten  out.  Watch  closely,  but  don't  get 
excited  if  the  top  gets  damp  and  tough  for  a  few  days,  as  the  heat 
naturally  comes  to  the  surface.  In  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  days 
bale,  using  a  14-by-18  self -feeding  power  press,  making  the  weight  of 
the  bales  to  be  from  seventy-five  to  eighty  pounds.  Store  the  bales  on 
edge.  In  the  winter  you  will  have  as  near  No.  1  hay  as  can  be  found." 
(See  page  246.) 


FIG.  111.    Load  cars  of  hay  to  full  minimum  weight. 

"Where  the  distance  from  market  necessitates  a  long  haul  or  where  the 
produce  is  shipped  by  rail,  alfalfa  hay  should  be  baled.  The  bulk  is  thus 
reduced  to  about  two-sevenths  of  that  of  loose  hay.  The  disadvantage  of 
baling  lies  only  in  the  extra  cost.  Where  the  hay  is  to  be  fed  on  the 
farm  it  is  not  worth  while.  When,  however,  the  hay  is  to  be  sold  in  the 
general  market,  the  cost  of  baling  is  more  than  compensated  for  in  the 
increased  price  which  may  be  received  for  it,  in  the  facility  with  which 
it  may  be  handled,  and  in  the  market  economy  of  storage  space  when  it 
is  being  held  for  higher  prices.  Whether  it  is  better  to  sell  the  hay  at 
once  or  to  hold  it  for  higher  winter  prices,  is  determined  by  the  rela- 
tion between  the  shrinkage  in  weight  during  storage  and  the  increase  in 
price  so  obtained;  also  damage  from  storms,  sunburn,  and  cost  of  in- 
surance."— Bulletin  No.  73,  Arizona  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


114  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

LOADING   HAY   IN    THE   CAR. 

The  following  are  in  answer  to  the  question,  "What  particular  points 
about  loading  alfalfa  hay  in  the  car  should  be  observed?" 

Finney  county:  "Hay  dealers  recommend  loading  bales  on  edge  or 
end  to  prevent  heating." 

Cowley  county:  "Load  long  way  of  car  and  put  bales  in  edgewise,  as 
they  will  not  heat  as  soon  as  if  put  in  flat." 

.  Riley  county:   "If  the  hay  has  not  gone  through  the  sweat  it  must  be 
put  in  edgewise." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "The  bales  should  be  placed  on  edge,  especially 
when  baling  from  the  windrow." 

Montgomery  county:  "With  planning  and  a  little  pushing,  a  car  can 
be  made  to  hold  from  1000  to  1500  pounds  of  hay  above  a  careless 
method." 

Neosho  county:  "To  get  in  the  minimum  weight  of  a  car,  pack  the 
bales  the  long  way  of  the  car  and  fit  them  tight." 

Marshall  county:  "Always  load  on  edge  and  fill  car  to  minimum  ca- 
pacity, which  is  best  done  in  furniture  or  automobile  cars  of  forty  feet 
or  more  in  length." 

Mitchell  county:  "Have  the  quality  uniform*  in  all  parts  of  the  car; 
load  on  edge;  use  large,  smooth  car;  remove  nails." 

Chase  county:  "Bales  ought  to  be  loaded  edgewise  in  car,  and  evenly 
so  the  hay  shows  to  good  advantage." 

Chautauqua  county:  "Load  the  bales  on  edge.  Hay  must  be  thor- 
oughly cured  or  it  will  heat  in  transit.  Put  one  grade  in  each  car." 

Cloud  county:   "Use  the  same  quality  of  hay  throughout  the  car." 

These  replies  are  typical  of  the  many  received,  and  cover  the  differ- 
ent points  mentioned. 

GRADING   HAY   FOR   THE    MARKET. 

In  response  to  the  question,  "How  do  you  grade  alfalfa  hay  for  the 
market?"  growers  answered  in  this  wise: 

Cheyenne  county:  "The  hay  association  grades  the  hay  when  it  gets 
to  market." 

Doniphan  county:  "The  buyer  grades  it.  We  do  not  have  anything 
to  say  about  it." 

Sumner  county:  "The  other  fellow  grades  it  at  his  end  of  the  road. 
We  have  nothing  to  say." 

Rules  for  grading  alfalfa  hay,  as  established  by  the  Kansas  City  Hay 
Dealers'  Association,  may  be  found  on  page  457. 

In  conforming  with  the  rules  and  grades  of  the  hay  market,  growers 
should  find  the  following  suggestions  helpful: 

Lu&ette  county:  "We  follow  as  closely  as  possible  the  market  grades, 
and  put  only  one  grade  in  a  car." 

Chautauqua  county:  "Put  a  uniform  quality  of  hay  in  the  car,  if 
possible.  Hay  that  comes  from  the  top  of  the  stack  should  not  be  placed 
in  the  same  car  with  hay  from  the  bottom  of  the  stack." 

Franklin  county:   "Try  to  keep  each  crop  and  grade  separate." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


115 


Wabaunsee  county:  "The  green  hay  and  the  brown  hay  should  be 
shipped  separately." 

Marshall  county:   "Attempt  to  get  evenness  in  quality  and  color." 

Riley  county:  "Put  the  brown  hay  in  one  class  and  the  green  in  an- 
other." 

Mitchell  county:  "We  ship  good  hay  and  try  to  have  it  of  uniform 
quality  in  the  car." 

Doniphan  county:  "Grade  by  the  color  and  texture." 

Norton  county:   "Hay  must  be  a  bright  color  and  not  too  stemmy." 

Riley  county:-  "We  grade  by  the  color,  the  leaves,  the  coarseness  and 
the  foreign  grass  in  it." 

Neosho  county:   "Grade  according  to  color  and  quality." 

Geary  county:  "Grade  on  color  and  amount  of  foreign  matter  con- 
tained in  it." 

Smith  county:   "The  greener  and  the  more  leaves  in  hay  the  better." 

Dickinson  county:  "I  try  to  ship  well-colored  and  leafy  hay  as  No.  1. 
If  much  off  color  I  would  expect  No.  2." 

Barber  county:  "I  use  all  nice,  bright  hay." 

MARKETING   HAY. 

TABLE  No.  9.     How  alfalfa  hay  is  marketed. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
.per  cent. 

Market  locally  ,  

43 

69      . 

41 

55 

Ship  to  market                                                 

31 

17 

32 

24      , 

Market  both  locally  and  by  shipping  

26 

14 

•27 

21 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  is  preeminently  the  market  to  which  hay  from 
Kansas  points  is  shipped.  Hay  is  sent  there  from  all  parts  of  the  state. 
Wichita,  Kan.,  is  a  secondary  hay  market,  to  which  hay  is  shipped  from 
a  considerable  part  of  its  tributary  territory  in  the  southwestern  section 
of  the  state.  Quite  a  large  proportion  of  the  alfalfa  hay  shipped  to 
Wichita  is  consumed  by  the  extensive  alfalfa  milling  industry  at  that 
point.  Other  markets  mentioned  are  Denver,  Colo.,  St.  Joseph,  Joplin, 
St.  Louis,  and  other  points  in  Missouri;  also  points  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  In- 
diana, Oklahoma,  Alabama  and  other  states.  The  larger  towns  of  Kan- 
sas also  consume  a  considerable  amount  of  alfalfa  hay. 

Proper  and  sufficient  data  were  not  brought  out  by  the  investigation 
accurately  to  estimate  the  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  fed  on  the  farm  as 
compared  with  the  amount  sold.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that  a  much 
higher  percentage  of  the  total  aggregate  yield  is  sold  from  farms  having 
the  larger  acreages  than  is  sold  from  the  farms  having  the  smaller  acre- 
ages. (See  pages  447  to  460.) 


116 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


117 


WHERE   SEED   IS   GROWN. 

Very  few  growers  reported  on  this  question,  but  a  sufficient  number 
reported  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  where  most  of  Kansas'  alfalfa  seed 
is  grown. 

TABLE  No.  10.     Location  of  seed-producing  sections. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Usually  mature  a  seed  crop 

35 

24 

7 

Occasionally  mature  a  seed  crop                        

17 

29 

35 

Never  mature  a  seed  crop  

48 

47 

58 

At  first  one  would  think  that  the  number  of  acres  annually  producing 
a  seed  crop  might  readily  be  computed  by  applying  the  foregoing  per- 
centages to  the  total  alfalfa  acreages  in  the  sections  mentioned.  This 
supposition  is  erroneous,  however,  for  the  reason  that  while  a  grower 
may  "usually  mature  a  seed  crop,"  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  he  de- 
votes his  entire  acreage  to  that  purpose.  In  fact,  there  is  very  good 
reason  to  believe  that  it  is  seldom,  if  at  all,  the  custom  of  growers  an- 
nually to  devote  their  entire  alfalfa  acreage  to  the  production  of  seed. 
One  Marion  county  grower  said,  "Yes,  I  usually  mature  a  seed  crop,  but 
never  more  than  25  per  cent  of  my  acreage  at  a  time."  The  Board  of 
Agriculture  has  at  this  time  no  reliable  data  on  which  to  base  an  esti- 
mate of  the  aggregate  acreage  annually  devoted  to  maturing  alfalfa 
seed. 


FIG.  113.  Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  production  of  alfalfa  seed  in  1909.  Each 
dot  represents  1000  buskels.  The  numerals  indicate  the  production  in  bushels.  The  location 
of  the  dots  indicates  approximately  the  seed-producing  areas. —  [Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.] 


118  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

As  one  progresses  from  the  western  toward  the  eastern  end  of  the 
state  the  percentage  of  those  who  usually  mature  a  seed  crop  becomes 
steadily  less:  35,  24,  7.  The  occasional  seed  growers  steadily  increase 
as  one  goes  from  west  to  east:  17,  29,  35.  The  percentage  of  those  who 
do  not  in  any  year  mature  a  seed  crop  is  slightly  more  in  the  eastern 
third  than  in  the  sections  further  west;  just  about  one-half  of  the  alfalfa 
growers  reporting  on  the  subject  are  included  in  this  class.  The  follow- 
ing replies  are  in  answer  to  the  question,  "Do  you  usually  mature  a  seed 
crop?" 

Marion  county:  "Yes,  from  five  to  fifteen  acres."  [This  man  has  115 
acres  of  alfalfa.] 

Rice  county:  "Usually  on  some  piece,  but  not  on  all.  Select  the  clean- 
est piece,  not  too  thick  on  the  ground." 

Cheyenne  county:  "Sandy  soil  is  best  for  maturing  seed." 

Dickinson  county:  "When  it  will  seed,  I  do.  In  wet  seasons  it  won't 
seed." 

Douglas  county:  "No.  I  can  very  seldom  get  a  paying  seed  crop  in 
eastern  Kansas." 

Miami  county:  "No.  The  seed  is  too  cheap  and  the  hay  is  worth  more 
money."  , 

Rawlins  county:   "No.    Hay  usually  pays  better  than  seed." 

Sumner  county:  "No.  It  is  hard  on  the  stand.  I  mature  a  crop 
every  other  year." 

CONDITIONS   FAVORING  A   SEED   CROP. 

Most  growers  prefer  sufficient  moisture  to  start  the  crop  that  is  to  be 
left  for  seed.  They  are  practically  unanimous  in  their  preference  for 
dry,  hot  weather  at  time  of  blossoming  and  up  until  time  of  maturity. 
The  degree  of  dryness  should  not  be  too  great,  as  it  is  possible  for  at- 
mosphere and  soil  to  become  so  dry  as  to  prevent  the  proper  maturity  of 
seed.  A  few  light  showers  after  the  seed  has  set  are  considered  by  some 
to  be  beneficial,  though  heavy  rains  are  not  at  all  desired.  Some  reports 
follow : 

Greenwood  county :  "I  want  a  dry  season  to  raise  seed.  If  it  is  wet  it 
sprouts  from  the  bottom." 

Mitchell  county:  "Plenty  of  moisture  in  subsoil  at  start  of  growth, 
and  dry,  windy  weather  afterward.  Enough  moisture  in  subsoil  to  give 
plants  a  good  start." 

Chautauqua  county:  "Dry  during  the  latter  part  of  the  growth  of  the 
second  or  third  crop,  particularly  while  it  is  in  bloom." 

Cloud  county:  "Heavy  rains  to  start  the  crop;  then  dry  weather  at 
blooming  and  maturing  of  the  seed." 

Marion  county:  "Wet  before  blooming  and  dry  weather  after  the  pods 
begin  to  set." 

Montgomery  county:  "Seed  best  not  from  a  big  growth.  In  a  wet 
season  it  may  bloom,  but  will  blight." 

WHICH   CROP  LEFT  FOR   SEED. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  growers  report  in  favor  of  leaving  the  second 
crop  of  the  season  for  seed,  nearly  one-third  in  favor  of  the  third  crop, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  119 

and  a  few,  located  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  state,  in  favor  of  the 
first  crop.  These  preferences  prevail  in  a  comparatively  uniform  way 
throughout  the  state.  As  much  time  is  required  to  mature  a  steed  crop 
as  is  required  to  mature  two  hay  crops,  for  where  four  crops  of  hay  in  a 
season  may  ordinarily  be  expected,  a  seed  crop  and  two  crops  of  hay  are 
all  that  can  be  secured.  July,  August  and  September  are  the  seed-matur- 
ing months. 

.  SEED   CROP'S   EFFECT   ON    THE   STAND. 

As  to  whether  or  not  the  maturing  of  a  seed  crop  is  injurious  to  the 
stand  of  alfalfa  there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  Two-thirds 
of  the  growers  reporting  are  of  the  opinion  that  maturing  seed  does  not 
injure  the  stand,  at  least  not  so  far  as  they  have  been  able  to  discover. 
Their  reports  read  something  like  this: 

Pratt  county:   "Not  that  I  have  ever  noticed." 

Allen  county:  "Not  here.    It  does  not  seed  often  enough  to  hurt." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  have  not  discovered  any  deterioration,  but  we 
cut  seed  only  in  very  dry  seasons." 

Gray  county:    "Under  some  conditions  seeding  improves  it." 

Wallace  county:  "I  have  seen  no  indications  of  it  doing  so.  I  have 
noticed  where  fallen  'seed  helped  thicken  the  stand." 

Lincoln  county:  "Never  affected  mine,  but  thickened  it  by  shattering." 

On  the  other  hand,  nearly  one-third  of  the  growers  believe  that  seed- 
ing does  injure  the  stand,  and  report  as  follows : 

Marion  county:  "It  shortens  the  life  of  the  field  and  decreases  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  hay  for  at  least  one  year." 

Harvey  county:  "It  allows  the  grass  and  weeds  to  start,  and  injures 
the  stand." 

Cloud  county:  "A  small  per  cent  of  the  plants  die  after  maturing 
seed." 

Geary  county:  "It  lowers  the  vitality  of  the  plant  and  thins  the  stand." 

Logan  county:  "It  exhausts  the  plant  very  much.  The  following  hay 
crop  is  very  light.  But  the  seed  that  is  shattered  produces  new  plants." 

Some  believe  that  only  continuous  seeding  is  injurious,  as: 
Neosho  county:  "If  continued  year  after  year  it  does." 
Norton  county:   "If  continued  will  soon  kill  alfalfa." 
Meade  county:   "Regular  seeding  injurious;  occasional  beneficial." 
Growers  caution  against  maturing   a   seed   crop   on   fields   of  young 
alfalfa: 

Sherman  county :  "It  is  best  not  to  let  a  newly-sown  field  go  to  seed." 

Scott  county:  "I  don't  know  that  it  injures  an  old  stand,  but  I  do  know 
that  it  is  not  good  to  mature  seed  till  the  stand  is  three  years  old  or  over." 

SEED   CROPS   FROM   WEEDY   FIELDS. 

Weedy  fields  produce  unclean  seed.  It  is  best  that  a  weedy  field  be  not 
allowed  to  go  to  seed.  A  few  growers  report  going  over  a  field  left  for 
seed  and  cutting,  off  the  weeds  with  a  hoe,  a  sickle  or  a  scythe.  This  may 


120  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

do  as  a  last  resort,  when  the  crop  is  too  far  along  to  cut  profitably  for 
hay,  or  to  clean  up  spots  here  and  there,  but  it  is  impractical  with  any 
considerable  acreage.  The  usual  means  of  eradicating  weeds  from  alfalfa 
fields,  as  discussed  on  foregoing  pages,  should  be  effectively  applied  be- 
fore a  seed  crop  is  allowed  to  mature.  Where  weed  seed  is  present 
among  the  alfalfa  seed  thorough  cleaning  and  recleaning  will  be  found 
profitable. 

CUTTING   THE   SEED   CROP. 

Reports  indicate  that  the  proper  stage  for  cutting  a  seed  crop  has 
arrived  when  from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  pods  have  turned 
brown.     A  few  say  that  they  wait  until  the  first  seeds  begin  to  shatter, 
while  others  cut  when  the  first  pods  begin  to  turn 
brown.     Most  of  the  growers,  however,  prefer  to 
cut  when  a  majority  of  the  pods  are  brown. 

In  harvesting  an  alfalfa  seed  crop  the  most  im- 
portant thing  is  to  prevent  loss  of  seed.  This 
is  kept  in  mind  throughout  every  operation. 
Starting  with  the  cutting  operation,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  most  popular  machines  for  that 
purpose  are  those  that  cut  the  crop  and  automat- 
ically rake  it,  leaving  it  in  small  unbound  bunches, 
or  gavels.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  any  one 
of  several  machines:  the  self-rake  reaper,  the 
common  mower  with  windrowing  and  bunching 
attachments,  or  the  grain  binder  without  the  bind- 
ing attachment.  The  modern  self-rake  reaper  has 
a  platform  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  circle.  The 
alfalfa  is  reeled  to  this  platform  by  rakes,  and  is 
deposited  from  the  platform  far  enough  to  one 
side  to  permit  the  free  passage  of  the  machine  on 
FIG.  114.  Most  growers  the  next  round.  The  cutting  mechanism  on  a  self- 
rake  reaper  is  like  that  on  a  binder.  The  self- 
are  brown." —  [Courtesy  u.  rake  reaper  may  also  be  equipped  with  a  buncher. 
fureD]epar  The  windrowing  attachment  of  the  common 

mower  is  a  set  of  curved  steel  fingers  attached  to 

the  rear  of  the  cutter  bar,  which  rolls  the  falling  alfalfa  into  a  windrow ; 
and  the  bunching  attachment  consists  of  additional  fingers,  made  to  hold 
accumulated  alfalfa  until  tripped.  If  the  alfalfa  plants  are  of  sufficient 
height  to  permit  binding,  the  binding  attachment  on  the  binder  may  be 
used. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  growers  reporting  use  either  the  self -rake 
reaper  or  the  mower  with  the  windrowing  and  bunching  attachments;  15 
per  cent  use  the  common  grain  binder,  usually  without  the  binding  attach- 
ment; 3  per  cent  use  the  grain  header  without  the  elevator;  and  15  per 
cent  use  an  ordinary  mower  and  rake,  the  same  as  for  hay. 

CURING   THE    SEED    CROP. 

A  preponderant  majority  of  the  seed  growers  cure  their  seed  crops  in 
the  cock;  only  a  few  cure  in  the  windrow.  It  is  considered  wise  to  get  the 
crop  into  the  cock  as  soon  as  possible,  while  it  is  yet  damp  or  tough,  for 


Alfalfa,  in  Kansas. 


121 


FIG.   115.    The  modern  self -rake  reaper  is  much  used  for  cutting  seed  crops. 
[Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Fia.   116.    Cutting  a  seed  crop  with  a  common  mower  equipped  with  windrowing  and 
bunching  attachment. — [Courtesy  National  Alfalfa  Journal.] 


122  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

there  is  less  shattering1  when  it  is  handled  in  a  damp  condition  than  when 
dry.  The  preference  is  for  small  cocks,  put  up  with  pitchforks.  Cocks  no 
larger  than  may  conveniently  be  placed  on  the  wagon  by  one  man,  a 
forkful  at  a  time,  are  preferred  by  many.  The  bunches  left  by  the  self- 
rake  reaper  and  the  mower  with  windrowing  and  bunching  attachments 
are  especially  adapted  to  rapid  cocking  with  a  minimum  amount  of  shat- 
tering. Where  the  crop  is  bound  the  sheaves  are  shocked  like  grain. 

In  case  of  rain  the  cocks  must  be  turned  for  thorough  drying;  and 
there  are  growers  who  turn  the  cocks  even  in  good  drying  weather,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  quickly  dried  on  both  sides.  As  a  rule,  from  five 
to  ten  days  are  required  for  the  crop  to  become  sufficiently  cured  and 
dry  for  threshing  or  storing.  In  no  case  should  a  seed  crop  be  threshed 
or  stored  until  it  is  well  cured  and  thoroughly  dry.  The  aim,  however, 
should  be  to  get  it  off  the  field  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  for  there 
is  always  danger  of  rain  while  it  is  yet  in  the  open. 

TRANSPORTING  THE   SEED   CROP   FROM   THE   FIELD. 

When  it  comes  to  transporting  the  seed  crop  from  the  field  to  the 
thresher  or  the  stack,  particular  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  shattering. 
At  this  time  the  pods  are  dry,  and  any  rough  handling  will  cause  a  con- 
siderable loss.  The  usual  practice  is  to  haul  the  crop  on  canvas-covered 
hay  wagons.  The  canvas  is  placed  directly  on  the  wagon  bed,  and  will 
catch  quite  a  quantity  of  shattered  seed.  If  the  cocks  are  small,  a 
whole  cock  may  be  carefully  lifted  to  the  wagon  at  one  time  with  pitch- 
forks, and  the  tearing  apart  of  the  cocks  and  shattering  of  the  seed  be 
thus  avoided.  Not  a  few  of  the  larger  growers  "slip  under  the  shocks 
with  a  sweep  rake,  taking  three  shocks  to  a  load,  and  move  the  shocks 
to  the  thresher  or  the  stack."  While  this  mefhod  may  cause  a  greater 
loss  by  shattering  than  the  wagon  method,  it  is  probably  most  economical 
for  large  acreages. 

STACKING  THE   SEED   CROP. 

The  stacking  of  a  seed  crop  is  accomplished  very  much  like  the  stack- 
ing of  a  hay  crop.  The  differences  lie  in  the  more  frequent  use  of  the 
hay  wagon,  the  more  careful  handling,  the  abstinence  from  tramping, 
and  the  greater  effort  used  to  protect  the  stack.  There  are  some  who 
use  the  sweep  rakes  and  stacker,  but  they  are  in  the  minority.  As  with 
hay,  the  stack  should  not  rest  directly  upon  the  ground.  Some  growers 
alternate  layers  of  alfalfa  with  layers  of  dry  straw,  with  the  object  of 
taking  up  any  surplus  moisture.  The  alfalfa  must  be  dry  before  stacking, 
because  stack-burning  is  one  of  the  worst  things  that  can  happen  to  « 
seed  crop.  The  stack  should  be  covered  in  the  very  best  manner  possible, 
with  the  same  kinds,  of  covers  as  are  used  for  hay. 

RAIN   ON   SEED   CROP. 

Rain,  particularly  rain  that  is  heavy  or  long  continued,  causes  serious 
damage  when  it  falls  on  a  cut  and  unthreshed  seed  crop.  It  is  a  common 
cause  of  discoloring  and  sprouting  of  seed,  of  bursting  and  shattering 
of  the  seed  pods,  and  of  molding  and  heating  in  the  stack  and  the  con- 
sequent destruction  of  vitality  in  the  seed.  Such  damage  considerably 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  123 

depreciates  the  market  value  of  seed,  the  usual  loss  from  this  source  be- 
ing estimated  by  some  growers  at  5  to  15  per  cent  or  more.  Hence  the 
wisdom  of  early  threshing. 

THRESHING. 

Threshing  is  best  done  during  dry  weather,  and  while  the  crop  is 
perfectly  dry.  Eighty-six  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  prefer  to 
thresh  direct  from  the  shocks  in  the  field,  if  the  weather  permits  and  a 
machine  can  be  obtained.  It  is  not  wise  to  wait  long  for  a  machine  after 
the  crop  is  dry,  a  week  or  ten  days  being  the  limit  expressed  by  some. 
Only  fourteen  per  cent  prefer  to  stack  and  thresh  later.  When  threshed 
direct  from  the  field  the  seed  is  no  longer  subject  to  the  weather,  there 
is  less  handling,  and  no  danger  from  stack-burning  or  molding.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  claimed  by  some,  if  the  crop  is  permitted  to  go  through 
the  sweat  in  the  stack  more  seed  may  be  threshed  out.  However,  the 
gain  of  this  additional  seed  may  in  a  measure,  if  not  wholly,  be  offset 
by  the  loss  in  shattering  caused  by  the  extra  handling.  There  are  no 
data  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  seed  threshed  direct  from  the  field  as 
compared  with  seed  threshed  from  the  stack.  Bound  alfalfa  is  gen- 
erally threshed  from  the  field.  Where  the  seed  crop  is  stacked  it  is  al- 
ways allowed  to  go  through  the  sweat,  and  is  threshed  at  some  conven- 
ient dry  time  in  fall  or  winter,  most  often  during  October  or  November. 


FIG.  117.    Threshing  alfalfa  seed  from  the  stack. 

Reports  indicate  that  fully  75  per  cent  of  the  growers  consider  the 
regular  alfalfa  or  clover  huller  the  best  machine  to  thresh  alfalfa  seed 
with.  Most  of  the  later  models  of  grain-threshing  machines  may  be 
equipped  with  special  alfalfa  attachments,  and  as  many  as  25  per  cent 
of  the  growers  reporting  think  it  the  best  machine  to  use.  The  old- 
fashioned  thresher  is  generally  too  wasteful  for  economical  use.  One 
grower,  from  Trego  county,  states  that  he  can  get  only  about  one-half  the 
seed  when  using  one  of  these  machines.  A  properly  adjusted  grain 
separator,  with  attachments,  will  do  pretty  good  work,  however,  if  rightly 
used. 


124 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


AVERAGE  YIELD   OF    SEED. 

The  average  yield  of  alfalfa  seed  in  the  state  of  Kansas,  according 
to  the  growers  reporting,  is  4.2  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  in  the  western  third  of  the  state  is  3.7  bushels,  in  the  central  third 
3.9  bushels,  and  in  the  eastern  third  5.1  bushels.  The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  estimated  that  in  1909  the  total  production  of 
alfalfa  seed  in  the  United  States  was  2,063,828  bushels,  crediting  Kansas 
with  49,754  bushels.  Kansas  ranked  second  as  an  alfalfa-seed  producer 
according  to  those  figures,  Utah  being  first,  with  51,812  bushels.  Ne- 
braska was  third,  with  31,408  bushels. 

Climatic  variations  cause  very  great  fluctuations  in  the  size  of  Kansas' 
annual  alfalfa  seed  crop,,  however.  In  dry  seasons  like  1901,  1911  or  1913 
a  large  surplus  is  produced  and  considerable  quantities  are  shipped  out 
of  the  state.  In  a  normal  year  not  a  great  deal  is  shipped  away,  because 
Kansas  herself,  with  her  constantly  increasing  acreage  and  replanting, 
consumes  large  quantities  every  year.  In  seasons  of  heavy  rainfall  at 
time  of  seeding,  the  alfalfa  seed  crop  is  not  of  sufficient  size  to  meet 
home  demands,  and  it  is  necessary  to  import  seed  from  other  states,  and 
even  from  foreign  countries. 

RECLEANING  SEED. 

Eighty-two  per  cent  of  the  growers  report  that  it  is  their  custom 
carefully  to  reclean  seed  before  harvesting.  Most  of  the  hullers  on  the 
market  to-day  are  equipped  with  recleaning  attachments,  but  where  seed 
is  threshed  with  a  machine  not  so  equipped,  a  good  fanning  mill,  costing 
approximately  $25,  will  be  found  a  profitable  investment. 


FIG.  118.    Recleaning  alfalfa  seed  before  marketing.     It  pays  to  take  out  the  foreign  seeds 
and  the  dirt. —  [Courtesy  U.   S.  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


125 


126 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


STORING  SEED. 

Alfalfa  seed  is  generally  put  in  heavy,  seamless  cotton  bags.  It  may 
be  sold  direct  from  the  machine  or  it  may  be  stored  in  these  bags.  Pew 
growers  store  their  seed  in  bulk  in  bins.  If  the  seed  is  green  or  damp 
when  threshed  it  had  best  be  spread  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  deep  on  a 
tight  floor,  in  a  dry  place,  and  shoveled  over  once  or  twice  before  bag- 
ging. The  place  of  storage  should  have  sufficient  ventilation  to  prevent 
heating,  should  be  dry,  and  should  afford  protection  against  mice  and  rats. 

MARKETING   SEED. 

Seventy-seven  per  cent  of  the  growers  sell  their  seed  locally,  either 
direct  to  the  consumer  or  to  local  dealers.  These  dealers,  while  they 
ordinarily  may  be  engaged  in  conducting  merchandise  stores  or  elevators, 
buy  the  seed  and  sell  it  to  regular  seedsmen.  To  communities  where 
seed  is  raised  in  sufficient  quantities  to  justify,  seedsmen  send  buyers. 
Only  three  per  cent  of  the  growers  sell  their  seed  direct  to  seedsmen. 
Twenty  per  cent  report  selling  their  seed  both  locally  and  to  seedsmen. 
(See  pages  267  to  271.) 

FEEDING  VALUE   OF   ALFALFA    STRAW. 

The  growers  reporting  estimate  that  alfalfa  straw,  where  it  is  prop- 
erly cared  for  and  not  allowed  to  get  wet,  has  a  feeding  value  of  nearly 
50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  good  alfalfa  hay.  A  number  of  growers  re- 
port its  feeding  value  to  be  equal  to  that  of  prairie  hay,  ton  for  ton. 
It  is  good  for  horses  especially,  although  beef  cattle  are  reported  as 


Fia.  120.  Growers  estimate  that  alfalfa  straw  when  properly  cared  for  has  a  feeding 
value  of  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  good  alfalfa  hay. — [Courtesy  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  127 

doing  well  on  it.     The  important  point  is  that  it  should  not  get  wet. 
The  following  reports  bear  on  this  subject: 

Cowley  county:  "If  handled  as  I  handle  it — threshed  and  blown  into 
the  barn  without  getting  wet — it  is  worth  $6  per  ton  when  hay  is 
worth  $8." 

Cheyenne  county:    "Same  as  good  prairie  hay." 

Geary  county:    "Same  as  prairie  hay." 

Greenwood  county:   "Good  as  prairie  hay." 

Labette  county:   "Better  than  prairie  hay." 

Miami  county:    "About  like  prairie  hay." 

Neosho  county:   "Better  than  prairie  hay  for  horses." 

Wallace  county:    "Better  than  prairie  hay." 

Woodson  county:  "Cut  at  the  right  stage  and  not  rained  on,  it  is  equal 
to  the  best  prairie  hay." 

Jackson  county:   "Better  than  timothy  if  not  rained  on." 

Nemaha  county:   "About  like  timothy." 

Wabaunsee  county:   "About  like  millet." 

Cloud  county:    "Very  little  more  than  wheat  straw." 

Rush  county:   "Same  as  wheat  straw." 

Marshall  county:   "Preferable  to  oat  straw  for  cattle." 

Comanche  county:   "As  good  or  better  than  corn  fodder,  ton  for  ton." 

Barber  county:  "Good  for  horses  especially." 

Douglas  county:    "All  stock  will  eat  it." 

Geary  county:   "Stock  seem  to  thrive  on  it." 

Ellis  county:  "When  bright  have  fed  it  to  cattle,  horses,  and  even 
brood  sows,  with  good  results." 

Finney  county:  "A  good  horse  feed;  not  as  good  as  hay  for  cattle." 

Grant  county:  "Old  growers  say  it  is  better  for  horses  after  thresh- 
ing." 

Marion  county:  "Better  threshed  than  unthreshed.  Old  cows  and 
young  calves  especially  fond  of  it." 

Greenwood  county:    "Good  as  hay  for  beef;  no  good  for  milk." 
Harvey  county:   "Good  for  both  cattle  and  horses." 

Marion  county :  "If  not  spoiled  it  is  fine.  I  often  use  it  to  start  steers 
on  feed;  throw  in  boxes  with  chop  on  it." 

Montgomery  county:  "For  horses  I  like  it  as  well  as  the  first  cutting." 
Morris  county:  "Not  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  is  good  for  stock." 
Pratt  county:   "Almost  equal  to  hay  for  horses;  less  for  cattle." 
Rooks  county:   "Good,  especially  for  horses." 

Saline  county:  "If  dry  and  not  musty  it  is  almost  as  good  as  hay  for 
horses." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  can't  say  what  the  feeding  value  is,  but  cattle 
seem  to  like  it  as  well  as  alfalfa  hay." 


128 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Ness  county:  "It  has  50  per  cent  feeding  value  unless  broken  in  fine 
particles." 

Russell  county:  "Very  good  if  not  allowed  to  lie  in  the  field." 

Marshall  county:  "Pretty  good,  but  not  as  good  as  hay;  coarse  and 
dry." 

Meade  county:   "It  may  be  entirely  worthless  or  very  valuable." 
Sumner  county:   "Poor,  as  too  woody." 

FEEDING  VALUE   OF   ALFALFA    MEAL. 

Only  15  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  on  the  question  have  fed 
alfalfa  meal  to  their  stock,  and  of  that  15  per  cent  only  32  per  cent  regard 
meal  of  greater  value  than  its  equivalent  in  hay.  Among  those  who  are 


FIG.  121.    Sheep  eating  alfalfa  meal. —  [Courtesy  National  Alfalfa  Journal.] 


Fio.  122.   A  Kansas  alfalfa  mill. — [Courtesy  The  Earth.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  129 

against  it,  it  is  considered  that  any  advantage  is  more  than  offset  by 
the  expense  of  grinding.  There  are  some,  however,  who  use  alfalfa  meal 
in  mixture  with  ground  corn  or  other  elements,  and  seem  to  like  it.  Others 
think  alfalfa  meal  good  poultry  feed.  (See  pages  403  to  446.) 

ALFALFA  SILAGE. 

Very  few  growers  have  had  experience  with  alfalfa  as  silage.  One 
man  in  Gray  county  states  that  he  has  tried  it;  that  he  did  not  put  the 
crop  through  a  cutter,  and  that  he  put  it  into  the  silo  in  a  wet  condition. 
His  estimate  of  alfalfa  as  silage  is,  "It  is  fine."  A  Sumner  county  cor- 
respondent reports  having  used  "some"  alfalfa  as  silage.  He  put  it 
through  the  cutter  and  filled  the  silo  on  the  same  day.  His  estimate  of 
alfalfa  as  silage  is,  "Good,  but  expensive."  Then  there  is  a  Potta- 
watomie  county  man  who  has  tried  using  alfalfa  straw  for  silage.  It 
was  put  through  a  cutter.  He  said,  "Don't  think  it  pays."  From  Barton 
county  comes  the  report  of  a  man  who  "stacked  alfalfa  hay  in  the  rain, 
while  it  was  green.  It  cured  like  silage  and  made  good  feed."  The  gen- 
eral opinion  among  growers,  however,  is  that  well-cured  hay  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  alfalfa  silage.  Some  typical  opinions  follow: 

Atchison  county:.  "No  better  than  alfalfa  hay;  don't  keep  so  well; 
not  economically  stored." 

Chase  county:   "Don't  improve  feed  enough  to  justify." 

Crawford  county:   "No  better  than  hay,  and  more  work." 

Doniphan  county:  "Makes  silage  too  soft." 

Pratt  county:   "More  successful  as  hay." 

Riley  county:   "Expensive." 

Smith  county:   "From  what  I  have  seen  it  doesn't  pay." 

(See  pages  262  to  266.) 

PASTURING   SWINE. 

Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  growers  reporting  pasture  hogs  on  alfalfa. 
This  practice  is  equally  prevalent  throughout  the  state.  Reporters  esti- 
mate that  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  will  comfortably  pasture  from  eight  to 
ten  average-sized  hogs  per  acre,  and  at  the  same  time  yield  a  small 
quantity  of  hay.  As  many  as  twenty  small  shoats  are  sometimes  pas- 
tured on  an  acre.  Others  report  fifteen  head  of  swine  of  mixed  ages  as 
a  reasonable  number.  Still  another  man  estimates  than  an  acre  will 
support  2500  pounds  of  live  weight.  The  luxuriance  of  the  growth  and 
the  size  and  age  of  the  animals  are  the  chief  limiting  factors.  It  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down  an  ironclad  rule,  and  the  farmer  will  need  to  use 
good  judgment.  As  one  grower  expresses  it,  "Whenever  you  see  that 
the  hogs  are  getting  the  best  of  the  alfalfa,  take  them  off." 

Here  is  the  report  of  a  Brown  county  farmer  on  this  subject: 

"I  have  forty-five  acres  in  one  field,  sown  ten  years  ago.  I  pasture 
40  sows  and  from  100  to  200  pigs  in  this  field  every  season.  They  have 
destroyed  about  two  acres  where  they  enter  the  field,  and  it  has  grown 
up  to  grass,  but  they  do  not  make  much  impression  on  the  rest  of  the 
field." 


130  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

It  is  inadvisable  to  pasture  in  the  spring  until  the  alfalfa  has  made 
a  growth  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  After  that  swine  may  pasture  during 
the  growing  season  and  up  until  about  the  time  the  last  cutting  would  be 
made  in  the  fall.  The  same  conditions  for  going  into  the  winter  that 
apply  to  alfalfa  cut  for  hay  should  apply  to  pastured  alfalfa;  that  is, 
a  certain  amount  of  growth  should  remain  for  protection  and  for  the 
catching  of  the  winter's  snows.  When  the  growth  is  not  large  the 
number  of  hogs  per  acre  should  be  reduced,  and  when  the  growth  is  com- 
ing on  rapidly  the  number  may  be  increased.  Most  growers  believe, 
however,  that  it  is  best  not  to  pasture  an  alfalfa  field  to  full  capacity. 

Very  little  hay  should  be  expected  from  a  pastured  alfalfa  field.  The 
amount  that  is  harvested  depends  upon  the  extent  of  pasturing.  It  is 
the  usual  practice  to  cut  a  pastured  field  two  or  three  times  during  the 
season,  handling  the  hay  in  the  customary  manner,  in  order  to  "freshen 
up  the  stand."  While  this  is  being  done  the  hogs  should  be  taken  off  and 
not  put  back  until  the  next  crop  has  made  a  good  start.  A  method 
practiced  by  some  growers  is  to  alternate  alfalfa  pastures.  Two  or  more 
fields  are  separated  and  the  hogs  taken  from  one  field  to  another.  By  this 
method  more  hay  is  gotten  and  the  effects  of  pasturage  are  not  so 
noticeable. 


FIG.    123.     Hogs   pasturing   on   alfalfa    at   the   J.    W.    Lough   farm,    Scott    county. 
Separated  fields  or  lots  enable  the  grower  the  better  to  control  the  pasturage. 

Because  of  the  tendency  of  hogs  to  root  in  alfalfa,  which  is  injurious, 
it  is  the  custom  among  about  three-fourths  of  the  growers  reporting  to 
"ring"  or  to  "'snout"  them.  Ringing  is  accomplished  by  putting  rings  in 
the  noses,  and  snouting  by  cutting  the  noses  of  the  animals — the  upper 
rim  of  the  noses,  the  "rooters." 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  pasturage  injures  alfalfa  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  when  it  is  overdone  it  will  cause  the  death  of  the  field.  It  is 
such  an  economical  method  of  producing  pork,  however,  that  a  judicious 
use  of  alfalfa  for  this  purpose  is  to  be  recommended.  Swine,  young  and 
old,  do  well  on  alfalfa  pasturage.  Growing  pigs  make  a  wonderfully 
vigorous  growth.  Alfalfa  makes  large  bone  and  muscle  with  a  great 
saving  in  grain.  From  Labette  county  comes  a  report  reading,  "Alone 
it  is  satisfactory;  with  a  little  grain  they  do  exceptionally  well  on  it." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


131 


Some  of  the  descriptions  applied  by  the  reporters  to  the  effect  of  alfalfa 
on  pigs  are:  good,  fine,  excellent,  beneficial,  wonderful,  magical,  very 
helpful,  best  results,  saves  one-half  the  grain,  very  satisfactory,  rapid 
and  economical  growth,  cheap  gains,  and  so  on. 


FIG.  124. 


Pigs  make  wonderfully  vigorous  growth  on  alfalfa  pasturage. 
[Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 


Old  hogs  live  in  fair  condition,  though  in  thin  flesh,  on  alfalfa 
pasturage  alone.  With  the  addition  of  a  little  grain  they  will  keep  in  a 
wonderfully  healthy  and  thrifty  condition.  A  grower  in  Wallace  county 
reports,  "Wouldn't  think  of  raising  hogs  without  alfalfa  pasture;  it 
keeps  them  healthy;"  an  Osborne  county  grower,  "A  fine  conditioner;" 
and  a  Thomas  county  grower,  "Gives  appetite  and  makes  them  thrive 
better."  It  is  particularly  good  for  brood  sows.  All  growers  agree  that 
corn,  kafir  or  other  grain  is  necessary  in  the  ration,  to  obtain  satisfactory 
results  with  swine  on  pasture.  Skim  milk,  tankage  and  other  feeds  are 
also  frequently  mentioned.  (See  pages  423  to  428.) 


FIG.   125.    Most  growers  consider  the  pasturage  of  beef  cattle  on  alfalfa  to  be 
dangerous. —  [Courtesy  Farmer  and  Stockman.] 


132  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

PASTURING   BEEF  CATTLE. 

Most  growers  report  that  the  pasturage  of  beef  cattle  on  alfalfa  is 
unsafe,  because  of  the  danger  of  "bloat."  Fairly  good  success  with  fall 
and  'spring  pasturing  is  occasionally  reported,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  weanling  calves.  The  extent  of  this  sort  of  pasturing  is  limited  by 
the  amount  of  growth  at  those  seasons,  and  care  must  be  exercised  not 
to  pasture  too  closely.  The  number  of  growers  who  pasture  during  the 
midseason  is  very  much  in  the  minority.  From  the  replies  of  those  who 
make  a  practice  of  pasturing  beef  cattle  it  is  estimated  that  a  mature 
steer  will  require  from  one  to  three  acres  of  alfalfa  as  pasturage,  de- 
pending on  the  luxuriance  of  growth  and  the  quantity  and  character  of 
supplementary  feed.  It  can  not  be  said  that  the  pasturage  of  beef  cattle 
on  alfalfa  is  more  prevalent  in  any  particular  section,  as  conditions  ap- 
pear quite  uniform  throughout  the  state.  (See  pages  410  to  415.) 


FIG.  126.    Were  it  not  for  the  danger  of  "bloat"  alfalfa  would  make  wonderfully  fine 
pasturage  for  dairy  cattle. —  [Courtesy  Farmers  Mail  and  Breeze.] 

PASTURING  DAIRY   CATTLE   AND    SHEEP. 

Almost  the  same  things  that  have  been  written  about  pasturing  beef 
cattle  on  alfalfa  may  be  written  about  the  pasturing  of  dairy  cattle  and  of 
sheep.  The  same  risk  of  "bloat"  is  present,  probably  in  a  greater  de- 
gree in  the  case  of  sheep  than  in  the  case  of  dairy  cattle.  Were  there  no 
danger  of  "bloat,"  alfalfa  pasturage  would,  no  doubt,  make  wonderfully 
fine  feed  for  any  of  these  animals,  but  under  the  circumstances  nearly  all 
growers  consider  pasturing  with  cattle  and  sheep  entirely  too  dangerous. 
(See  pages  415  and  419.) 

PASTURING   HORSES  AND   MULES. 

The  pasturage  of  horses  or  mules  on  alfalfa  is  less  dangerous.  Results 
are  especially  satisfactory  with  young,  growing  stock,  brood  mares,  and 
stock  not  hard  at  work.  Reports  as  to  the  number  of  horses  or  mules 
pastured  on  an  acre  of  alfalfa  vary  considerably,  averaging  from  one  to 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  133 


FIG.  127.    Sheep  also  are  very  susceptible  to  "bloat"  on  alfalfa  pasturage. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

two  and  one-half.  It  is  important  not  to  overpasture  with  these  animals, 
for  with  their  habit  of  eating  closely  there  is  great  danger  of  killing  the 
alfalfa.  There  are  many  growers  who  pasture  during  the  growing 
season  only,  while  just  as  many  pasture  during  the  fall  and  early  winter 
only.  The  following  reports  very  clearly  indicate  the  general  trend  of 
opinion  as  regards  alfalfa  for  horse  and  mule  pasturage: 

Shawnee  county:  "I  pasture  the  first  and  last  crops  with  horses.  The 
first  crop  the  pasturing  cuts  short  about  one-third;  the  last  crop  the 
horses  consume  entirely.  It  pays  me  best.  As  soon  as  they  have  no 
prairie  grass  in  the  fall  I  put  them  on  the  alfalfa,  and  they  remain  there 
until  spring.  If  there  is  not  too  much  snow  they  winter  without  any  other 
feed — no  grain  at  all.  It  certainly  is  a  cheap  way  to  raise  horses,  and  in 
my  judgment  is  much  the  best  way.  I  pasture  at  the  rate  of  one  head 
per  acre." 

Allen  county:  "Fine  conditioner." 

Chautauqua  county:  "It  is  good  for  horses  and  mules;  a  splendid 
tonic." 

Dickinson  county:   "Pasture  them  in  the  fall  and  it  makes  them  fat." 
Geary  county:   "With  grain,  nothing  fattens  more  quickly." 

Geary  county:  "There  is  no  feed  that  will  put  fat  on  horses  or  mules 
like  a  good  alfalfa  pasture." 

Hodgeman  county:  "Stock  in  poor  condition,  especially  horses,  will 
pick  up  and  get  fat  even  in  the  winter." 

Neosho  county:  "Good  results  with  colts  or  horses,  and  especially 
with  brood  mares  with  suckling  colts." 

Clark  county:  "Good  for  young  stock." 

Jackson  county:  "It  is  safe  and  profitable  pasture  for  horses  and 
mules." 


134 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Montgomery  county:    "Practical  and  profitable  for  short  periods  and 
in  winter." 

Mitchell   county:    "Good   pasture,   but   little   good    for   hard-worked 
animals.    About  two  per  acre." 

Smith  county :  "All  right  for  young  colts,  and  mules  or  horses  that  are 
not  at  too  heavy  work." 

Mitchell  county:    "Keep  in  good  condition,  but  soft.     One  head  per 
acre  for  about  four  months." 

Gray  county:    "Fine  for  them,  but  question  the  advisability  for  the 
crop." 

Marshall  county:    "Good  for  horses,  but  should  be  pastured  lightly 
for  the  good  of  the  alfalfa." 

Cloud  county:   "I  do  not  like  to  have  horses  and  mules  on  alfalfa,  as 
they  eat  it  too  closely." 
. Logan  county:  "Eat  too  closely  and  tramp  it  out." 

Meade  county:    "It  is  good  for  them,  but  too  close  grazing  will  kill 
the  alfalfa." 

Brown  county:   "Whatever  of  crop  is  left  after  frost  I  pasture  with 
horses  all  winter  when  no  snow." 

Cherokee  county:  "I  only  pasture  in  the  fall  after  the  last  cutting." 

Greenwood  county:  "Turn  the  horses  in  the  fields  in  the  fall  and  take 
them  out  in  the  spring." 

Harvey  county:   "We  have  pastured  mules  on  alfalfa  in  the  fall  after 
the  last  cutting  until  nearly  the  first  of  the  year." 

(See  pages  428  to  436.) 


FIG    128     Many  growers  report  excellent  results  from  pasturing  colts  on   alfalfa. 
[Courtesy  Nebraska  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  135 

EFFECT   PASTURING   HAS   ON   THE   STAND. 

Probably  there  is  no  point  upon  which  alfalfa  growers  hold  so  many 
opinions  as  upon  the  effect  pasturing  has  on  the  stand.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  the  growers  consider  that  pasturing  in  any  season  or  at  any  time 
is  injurious  to  the  stand  and  are  entirely  against  the  practice.  Still 
others  believe  no  serious  damage  results  where  good  judgment  is  used. 
Of  course,  if  market  hay  is  the  object,  pasturage  is  not  practicable,  but 
it  would  seem  from  the  data  acquired,  where  judicious  care  is  exercised 
and  the  animals  are  not  permitted  to  abuse  the  field,  that  the  excellent 
results  obtained  in  pasturing  swine  and  young  growing  stock  (horses 
particularly)  would  warrant  the  use  of  alfalfa  as  pasture,  at  least  to  a 
limited  extent. 

The  worst  damage  caused  by  pasturing  is  usually  brought  about  by 
overpasturing — pasturing  too  closely  and  continuously.  Another  great 
cause  of  damage  is  the  trampling  and  puddling  of  the  fields  in  wet 
weather,  which  packs  the  soil  into  a  hard,  compact  and  very  undesirable 
condition.  Weeds  and  grasses  often  gain  easy  entrance  to  pastured 
fields.  Early  spring  cultivation  is  a  necessity  with  a  packed  or  weedy 
field.  Contrary  to  a  theory  often  expressed,  most  growers  believe  that 
no  appreciable  injury  is  done  to  the  stand  when  a  frozen  field  is  trampled 
or  driven  over.  Fields  of  alfalfa  under  two  or  three  years  of  age  will 
not  stand  pasturing.  Abstinence  in  times  of  continued  wet  weather,  and 
until  the  alfalfa  has  made  a  good  start,  say  eight  or  ten  inches;  waiting 
until  the  field  is  old  enough;  regular  and  proper  clipping  as  a  means  of 
refreshing  the  stand ;  alternation  of  fields  as  pasturage,*  and  the  removal 
of  the  animals  before  the  growth  has  been  eaten  too  short,  are  measures 
recommended  for  practice. 

"BLOAT." 

Cattle  and  sheep  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  "bloat"  when  on  alfalfa 
pasturage.  Only  now  and  then  is  a  horse  lost  from  this  cause,  and  never 
a  hog.  Age  seems  to  have  little  influence,  as  the  reports  mention  animals 
of  all  ages,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  animals  of  any  particular  age 
are  especially  liable  to  "bloat." 

There  are  growers  who  believe  the  only  preventive  of  "bloat"  worthy  of 
consideration  is  that  of  keeping  the  animals  off  the  alfalfa.  Reports 
from  those  who  practice  pasturing,  however,  indicate  that  there  are 
certain  conditions  which  influence  the  susceptibility  of  an  animal  to  this 
trouble.  Turning  stock  on  alfalfa  pasturage  that  is  wet  with  dew  or  other 
moisture  is  said  by  many  to  be  a  dangerous  practice,  and  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  stock  be  not  turned  on  until  the  moisture  has  dried  off. 
Another  measure  which  is  said  to  aid  in  the  prevention  of  "bloat"  is  that 

*  Continuous  close  pasturing  of  alfalfa  damages  the  plants  by  root  starvation,  while 
the  tramping  of  the  soil  when  wet  from  rains  or  irrigation  does  further  damage;  the 
result  is  a  rapid  thinning  of  the  stand.  This  allows  noxious  weeds  to  gain  a  foothold,  and 
the  productivity  of  the  fields  rapidly  decreases.  To  obviate  these  difficulties  a  system  of 
rotation  pasturing  is  being  adopted  in  Arizona,  in  which  the  live  stock  is  kept  off  the 
fields  until  the  alfalfa  is  sufficiently  mature  to  make  hay,  and  then  the  animals  are  turned 
into  the  fields  in  large  enough  numbers  to  harvest  the  crop  quickly.  This  system  is 
proving  much  more  profitable  than  any  other  system  of  pasturing  alfalfa  so  far  known. — 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  Circular  No.  54. 


136 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


of  always  giving  the  animals  a  goodly  quantity  of  dry  feed  before  giv- 
ing them  access  to  alfalfa  pasturage — hay,  corn  fodder  and  straw  being 
especially  mentioned  for  that  purpose.  When  fed  dry 
feed  animals  are  not  so  likely  ravenously  to  devour  and 
gorge  themselves  with  the  green  succulence  of  alfalfa 
and  thus  acquire  "bloat."  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to 
allow  the  animals  gradually  to  become  accustomed  to 
pasturing,  starting  by  permitting  them  to  graze  but  a 
short  time,  and  gradually  increasing  the  time  until  the 
grazing  has  become  continuous. 

The  remedies  proposed  for  "bloat"  are  many  and 
diverse.  A  very  popular  remedy  for  mild  cases  consists 
of  placing  a  bit,  a  stick  or  a  rope  in  the  mouth  and 
fastening  it  there;  meanwhile  the  animal  is  violently 
exercised.  Some  coat  the  stick  with  lard  or  axle  grease 
to  stimulate  the  flow  of  saliva.  Another  means  of  treat- 
ing mild  cases,  sometimes  used  in  connection  with  the 
"stick  in  mouth"  method  and  sometimes  alone,  is  to 
drench  the  back  of  the  animal  with  cold  water.  Some 
cover  the  back  of  the  animal  with  burlap  or  an  old  sack 
and  drench  that  with  cold  water.  Others  drench  with 
kerosene  instead  of  cold  water.  Then  there  are  those 
who  put  a  rubber  hose  down  the  throat,  and  those  who 
pull  the  tongue,  and  so  on. 

The  ultimate  and  sure  remedy  for  "bloat" — the 
remedy  used  in  all  severe  cases  and  always  when  other 
remedies  fail — is  to  "stick"  them.  The  regular  trocar 
and  canula,  the  operation  of  which  is  described  on 
pages  421  and  422,  is  best  for  this  purpose;  but  where 
it  is  necessary  to  act  at  once  in  order  to  save  the  life  of 
the  animal,  any  sharp  implement,  as  a  knife,  will  serve 
to  stab  or  "stick"  a  hole  through  the  skin  and  ab- 
dominal wall  to  let  out  the  accumulated  gas.  (See  in- 
structions on  pages  419  to  423.)  "Here  are  some  typical 
replies  about  remedies  for  "bloat." 

Wallace  county:  "Pour  cold  water  on  them  and  put  a  gag  in  the 
mouth.  The  best  preventive  is  to  keep  them  off  entirely.  Feeding  hay 
or  straw,  and  being  sure  that  they  all  drink  before  going  in,  will  help. 

Geary  county:  "Do  not  pasture  hungry  cattle  on  alfalfa  nor  let  them 
eat  it  wet." 

Chase  county:  "Feed  them  before  turning  out.  In  ?bad  cases  stab 
them,  and  in  mild  cases  throw  cold  water  on  their  backs." 

Bourbon  county:   "Don't  turn  them  onto  it  in  spring  until  dew  is  off." 

Jefferson  county:  "Cold  water  on  their  backs  and  a  stick  in  their 
mouths.  As  a  last  resort  tap  them." 

Elk  county:  "My  remedy  is  to  put  a  gunny  bag  on  the  back  and  pour 
on  cold  water." 

Riley  county:  "Put  a  round  stick  of  wood  in  the  mouth.  Tie  a  rope 
or  strap  to  each  end  and  fasten  over  the  head." 


FIG.  129.  The 
trocar  and  canula 
should  be  on  every 
farm,  for  the  re- 
lief of  bloated  ani- 
mals. See  pages 
421  and  422. 


Alfalfa 'in  Kansas.  137 

Butler  county:  "I  put  a  large  bit  in  the  mouth  and  run  the  animal 
about.  As  a  last  resort  I  would  stick  with  a  knife  in  the  paunch." 

Ellis  county:  "If  bad  case,  tap  them.  If  not,  tie  a  stick  crossways  in 
the  mouth." 

Marshall  county:  "A  thick,  round  stick  held  securely  in  the  mouth, 
and  tapping  in  desperate  cases.  Either  is  effective  if  in  time." 

Morton  county:  "Tie  a  stick  in  the  mouth  and  keep  the  animal  moving. 
If  very  bad,  puncture  and  use  tube." 

Comanche  county:  "Stick  with  pocket  knife  four  inches  in  front  of 
the  hip  bone,  two  inches  deep." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "If  a  steer  or  cow  be  bloated  so  bad  that  it  would 
die  if  left  alone,  it  can  be  saved  usually  by  stabbing  on  the  upper  left 
side  of  the  paunch  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape." 

Kingman  county :  "Don't  let  them  have  water.  Get  them  in  out  of  the 
wind.  Watch  them.  If  one  drops  be  quick  to  use  the  trocar." 

(See  pages  419  to  423.) 

ALFALFA   SOILAGE. 

Less  than  half  of  the  growers  reporting  have  had  experience  with 
alfalfa  as  a  soiling  crop  (cutting  and  feeding  "green,"  without  curing). 
The  results  reported  indicate  that  under  certain  circumstances,  and 
where  good  judgment  is  used,  the  practice  is  fairly  good.  It  is  excellent 
feed  for  hogs,  particularly  sows  penned  up  at  farrowing  time.  Dairy 
cows  respond  to  it  with  a  generous  flow  of  milk.  It  is  also  good  for  beef 
cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  poultry.  However,  to  all  animals  except  hogs, 
"green"  alfalfa  must  be  fed  carefully  and  not  too  freely,  as  it  may  have 
a  laxative  effect  on  the  bowels  of  the  animals,  and  too  much  might  even 
cause  "bloat"  in  the  case  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Some  declare  that  while 
it  may  be  fed  fresh  to  hogs,  it  should  be  wilted  for  at  least  twelve  hours 
for  horses  or  cattle.  The  method  itself  involves  more  labor  and  is  prob- 
ably more  expensive  than  any  other  method  of  harvesting  or  disposing  of 
the  crop,  hence  it  is  possible  that  economy  may  warrant  its  use  only  in 
special  cases  where  animals  are  confined  or  penned  up  and  where  pastur- 
ing is  not  desirable.  The  effect  of  soiling  on  the  alfalfa  field  is  probably 
not  so  hard  as  pasturing,  although  cutting  before  maturity  is  anything 
but  beneficial.  The  following  replies  express  the  growers'  sentiments  on 
this  subject: 

Woodson  county:  "Good  if  fed  in  a  moderate  way." 

Sherman  county:  "If  fed  carefully  and  not  too  freely  it  is  safe  and 
good." 

Stafford  county:   "Good,  but  use  judgment  in  feeding." 
Ellis  county:  "Results  good  when  used  judiciously." 
Hodgeman  county:   "All  right;  must  use  judgment." 
Brown  county:  "To  cut  and  wilt  is  a  fairly  safe  way." 
Cowley  county:   "All  right  for  hogs.    Let  it  cure  for  cattle." 

'  Fdnney  county:    "Good  results  with  horses.     For  cattle  it  should  be 
wilted." 


138 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Wallace  county :  "Good  results  with  all  stock.    Let  it  cure  twelve  hours 
for  cattle  or  horses;  fresh  for  hogs." 

Jefferson  county:  "Good  with  swine.    Be  careful  with  cattle." 

Neosho  county:  "Can  be  fed  to  cows  in  small  quantities,  without 
'bloat'  if  wilted." 

Dickinson  county:   "Get  better  results  with  hogs." 

Montgomery  county:  "Sometimes  for  brood  sows  penned  up  for  far- 
rowing." 

Saline  county:   "Good  for  horses  and  hogs,  but  dangerous  for  cattle." 
Harper  county:  "Satisfactory  for  beef  steers." 

Labette  county:  "Not  so  good  with  hogs  as  pasturing.  Milk  cows  re- 
spond well  to  this  feed." 

Doniphan  county:  "Was  very  soft  and  caused  scours." 

Mitchell  county:  "Causes  horses  to  become  soft  and  liable  to  colic." 

Montgomery  county:  "Good  for  hogs.  Use  care  with  other  stock.  Too 
loosening  of  the  bowels  for  horses." 

Norton  county:   "Too  washy." 
Reno  county:  "Very  washy." 

Montgomery  county:  "Too  loosening  for  horses.  All  right  for  cattle 
in  small  doses." 

Rawlins  county:  "Very  good,  but  prefer  letting  horses  and  hogs  run 
in  it." 

Russell  county:   "Good  for  hogs,  but  not  as  good  as  pasture." 

Osage  county:  "About  the  same  as  pasturing,  but  it  is  poor  practice,  as 
it  makes  extra  work  and  is  a  sure  way  to  ruin  a  stand,  cutting  it  out  of 
season." 

Pottawatomie  county:   "It  is  apt  to  kill  the  stand,  cutting  immature." 

Harvey  county:   "Good,  but  labor  is  too  expensive." 

Mitchell  county:  "Good  for  sows,  though  an  expensive  method." 

Allen  county:  "Good,  but  it  takes  too  much  time." 

(See  pages  403  to  438.) 

ALFALFA  HAY  AS  AN  EXCLUSIVE  FEED. 

The  question  was  asked,  "Do  you  make  alfalfa  hay  the  exclusive  feed 
for  any  animals  on  the  farm?"  The  replies  to  this  question,  "Yes"  or 
"No,"  were  tabulated  and  are  represented  in  the  following: 

TABLE  No.  11.     Alfalfa  hay  as  an  exclusive  feed. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Those  replying 
Those  replying 

"Yes"  
"No"  

39 
61 

29 
71 

41 
59 

36 
64 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


139 


The  growers  were  also  asked  to  name  the  animals  to  which  they  give 
alfalfa  hay  as  an  exclusive  feed.  The  animals  mentioned  most  frequently 
are  cattle  and  horses,  although  hogs,  mules  and  sheep,  in  the  order  given, 
were  also  mentioned.  The  following  is  a  tabulation  of  the  replies  of  the 
growers  reporting,  and  shows  in  percentages  the  frequency  with  which 
the  different  animals  were  mentioned  by  reporters  from  the  different 
thirds  of  the  state  and  as  from  the  state  as  a  whole.  It  serves  as  an  in- 
dication of  the  animals  best  able  to  get  along  on  alfalfa  hay  alone. 

TABLE  No.  12.     Animals  fed  alfalfa  hay  alone. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Sheep  

4 

7 

10 

7 

Mules  

7 
39 

16 
34 

15 
34 

14 
35 

C&ttle  

34 

33 

30 

32 

Hops  

16 

10 

11 

12 

Horses  not  at  hard  work;  young  "stuff"  of  all  kinds,  as  colts,  calves, 
pigs,  lambs,  etc.;  cattle  stockers;  and  breeding  animals  are  the  animals 
that  do  best  on  alfalfa  as  an  exclusive  feed,  according  to  reports.  Here 
are  some  of  the  replies  of  growers  who  make  alfalfa  an  exclusive  feed : 

Barton  county:   "Both  cattle  and  horses.     No  injurious  effects." 

Brown  county:  "Cows,  hogs  and  sheep,  and  some  to  horses,  but  not  in 
such  quantities." 

Butler  county:   "Either  horses  or  cattle  do  all  right  on  alfalfa  alone." 

Chase  county:  "After  the  pigs  are  weaned  we  turn  our  sows  on  pasture 
with  no  other  feed." 

Cowley  county:    "Colts,  or  any  horses  or  mules  not  at  heavy  work." 
Dickinson  county:  "Cattle  and  hogs;  horses  in  the  winter." 
Douglas  county:  "Sheep  from  the  1st  of  January  till  grass." 
Douglas  county:  "Stock  cattle;  sometimes  winter  mules." 
Harper  county:   "To  dairy  cows." 

Jackson  county:  "Stock  cattle  or  idle  horses  do  well  on  hay  alone." 
Labette  county:   "Occasionally  we  winter  idle  work  stock." 
Pratt  county:  "Have  wintered  horses  on  alfalfa  without  grain." 
Riley  county:   "Young  horses  and  mules  not  at  work." 

Anderson  county:  "Mules,  colts  and  calves.  With  the  calves  I  find  it 
better  to  have  some  other  hay  to  give  with  the  alfalfa." 

Coffey  county:  "All  young  animals." 

Cowley  county:   "In  winter,  to  horses,  mules  and  cattle." 
Crawford  county:   "To  breeding  ewes  in  the  winter." 
Crawford  county :  "Horses,  cows  and  breeding  swine." 


140  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Leavenworth  county:   "Horses,  mules  and  dairy  cows." 

Linn  county:  "Brood  sows  and  young  mules." 

Lyon  county:  "Very  good  both  to  swine  and  cows." 

Reno  county:  "Stock  cattle." 

Riley  county:   "Horses  not  worked  and  stock  cattle." 

Dickinson  county:  "Cattle.  I  don't  think  it  best,  but  have  sometimes 
had  nothing  else." 

Then  there  are  those,  MUCH  IN  THE  MAJORITY,  who  do  not  believe  in 
making  alfalfa  hay  an  exclusive  feed  for  any  animal  on  the  farm,  reply- 
ing after  this  fashion : 

Pottawatomie  county:   "Don't  give  best  results  as  sole  feed." 
Wichita  county:   "Animals  do  better  when  they  get  a  change  of  feed." 
(See  pages  403  to  438.) 

RATIONS   INCLUDING   ALFALFA   HAY. 

Contrary  to  our  expectations,  the  questions  about  rations  failed  to 
bring  out  data  sufficient  and  conclusive  enough  to  warrant  the  publication 
of  amounts  and  proportions.  Many  replies  were  received  in  answer  to 
these  questions,  but  they  were,  as  a  rule,  neither  specific  nor  definite. 
There  were  some  replies,  it  is  true,  that  seemed  all  that  could  be  desired, 
but  the  number  of  such  was  so  small  that  the  necessary  verifying  effect, 
one  upon  the  other,  could  not  be  had;  hence  it  was  considered  best  to 
make  no  attempt  to  quote  the  rations  suggested. 

The  data  at  hand  indicate  that  alfalfa  hay  may  be  used  as  a  part  of 
the  ration  of  any  animal  on  the  farm,  and  of  poultry  as  well.  The 
wonderful  increase  in  acreage  and  present  large  area  is  sufficient  evi- 
dence of  the  appreciation  the  Kansas  farmer  has  of  alfalfa  as  a  feed 
for  live  stock.  It  is  wise,  however,  in  most  instances  to  supplement 
alfalfa  hay  with  other  feeds,  in  order  to  balance  the  ration.  (See  pages 
403  to  438.) 

Alfalfa  hay  should  be  fed  in  racks,  wherever  possible,  so  that  it  will 
not  be  trampled  under  foot  and  be  wasted.  Good  types  of  feeding  racks 
are  illustrated  in  Figs.  352  to  361. 

Rations  for  Beef  Animals. 

The  rations  suggested  for  beef  animals  include  various  feeds  in  vary- 
ing quantities.  On  the  question  of  whether  the  animals  are  stockers, 
feeders  or  breeding  stock,  with  or  without  young,  depends  in  large  part 
the  sort  of  ration  to  be  fed.  A  fattening  ration,  or  a  ration  fed  to  breed- 
ing stock  with  young,  should  contain  a  higher  proportion  of  grain  than 
a  maintenance  ration  for  breeding  stock  without  young,  or  a  ration  for 
stockers.  The  weight  of  the  animals  is  another  important  limiting  factor. 

Corn  is  the  supplementary  grain  most  frequently  mentioned  for  beef 
animals.  It  is  fed  in  various  forms — in  the  ear,  shelled,  as  chop,  meal, 
or  corn-and-cob  meal.  In  other  instances  the  grain  mentioned  consists 
of  kafir,  milo  or  other  of  the  sorghum  grains,  which  may  be  substituted 
for  corn,  not  pound  for  pound,  but  in  proportion  to  the  percentage  of 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


141 


142 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kcvnsa*. 

nutri^U    '-onU3,n<:d    in    fa**      'J  h«:    Ko/tfhurn    fcraina    hhould 
or   ground    b<-for<-    f<-J,^'.      In    addjt.ior.    t.o    alfalfa    hay   and 

grain,  other  kind*  of  roughage  and  concentrate*  are  frequently  fed, 
or  kanr  ullage,  corn  or  kaftr  stover,  straw  and  "cane"  are  the  kind* 
•jghage  named.    Among  the  concentrate*,  cottonseed  meal  and  cot- 
tonseed cake  are  often  added  to  the  ration,  and  now  and  then  a  little 
wheat  bran  or  a  little  oat*.    These  additions  naturally  alter  the  amounts 
of  alfalfa  fed,   (See  pages  410  to  4  J 

Ration*  for  Dairy  Animal*. 

In  addition  to  a  specific  amount  of  alfalfa,  sometime*  with  other 
roughage  and  sometimes  not,  a  certain  amount  of  grain  is  usually  fed 
to  dairy  cows,  for  best  results.  The  amount  of  grain  is  regulated  by 
jmber  of  pounds  of  milk  the  cow  is  giving,  and  sometimes  by  the 
per  cent  of  butter  fat  as  well  Practically  the  same  kind*  of  feed  were 
suggested  for  dairy  cows  a*  for  beef  cattle,  though  in  different  pro- 
portions and  amounts.  Bran  was  much  more  frequently  mentioned  as 
a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  (See  pages  415  to  417,) 

Ration*  for  Bwine. 

<•  rations  for  cwine  are  much  more  concentrated  than  those  for 
cattle,  A  high  proportion  of  protein  and  of  other  valuable  food  elements, 
however,  makes  alfalfa  hay  a  most  excellent  feed  for  these  animals, 
Corn  is  the  great  grain  feed  for  nogs,  and,  as  with  cattle,  it  may  be  fed 
either  in  the  ear  or  ground  to  varying  degrees  of  fineness, 
sorghum  grains  are  sometimes  fed  in  place  of  corn,  especially  in  tho*e 
sections  where  they  are  more  commonly  grown.  Shorts,  wheat  bran  and 
middling*  are  frequently  fed,  and  oats  only  occasionally.  Tankage,  meat 
meal,  milk  or  skim  milk  and  linseed  oil  meal  are  other  element*  com* 
monly  introduced  into  swine  rations.  Silage,  stover  and  the  coarser 
roughages  are  seldom  mentioned  by  the  reporters.  Slop*  made  of  dif- 
ferent combinations  of  ground  grains  are  very  popular  with  swine 
feeders, 

The  amounts  and  proportions  of  the  above  feed*  it  is  proper  to  give 
•wine  depend  upon  the  animals  themselves.  Reports  indicate  that  brood 
sows  not  suckling  get  along  nicely  with  alfalfa  and  very  little  grain  or 
other  rich,  concentrated  feed.  Brood  sows  stickling  are  given  more  liberal 
quantities  of  feed,  with  a  much  higher  proportion  of  concentrates.  Grow- 
ing  pig*  after  weaning,  while  not  given  the  full  fattening  ration,  are  fed 
•unVient  quantities  of  concentrates  to  cause  them  to  make  rapid  and 
steady  gains.  The  fattening  ration  is  the  mo*t  highly  concentrated  and 
liberal  of  all.  The  rations  of  growing  and  fattening  *wine  are  regulated 
by  the  weight  of  the  animals,  (Set  pages  423  to  428.; 

Ration*  for  Horte*  and  Mule*. 

Most  growers  agree  that  alfalfa  hay  makes  good  feed  for  horse*,  par- 
ticularly work  horses.  The  amount  to  be  fed  is  limited  by  the  weight  of 
the  horses  and  the  kind  of  work  they  are  doing,  a*  well  a*  the  quality  of 
the  hay.  It  is  ngctisary  to  supplement  alfalfa  with  other  roughages  and 
concentrate*.  The  other  roughages  mentioned  are  prairie,  timothy  and 


CORN  &ALFALFA  HAY 


*!,»  FlG;.132-  Carcasses  of  hogs  of  the  same  litter  and  given  the  same  treatment  except  in 
the  matter  of  feed,  showing  the  value  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  swine  ration  balancer.— 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  145 

sorghum  hay ;  corn  and  grain-sorghum  fodder  and  stover ;  wheat  and  oat 
straw;  and  pasturage.  Of  the  concentrated  feeds  corn  is  most  generally 
fed,  with  oats  next  in  importance,  followed  by  the  ground  sorghum  grains 
(kafir,  milo  and  feterita),  barley,  bran  and  linseed  oil  meal. 

Horses  at  heavy  work,  such  as  plowing,  require  the  most  liberal 
amounts  of  feed  and  a  much  higher  proportion  of  concentrates.  The 
most  popular  ration  mentioned  consists  of  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay,  with 
corn  and  oats,  and  perhaps  a  little  linseed  oil  meal.  Idle  horses  require 
little  grain.  Alfalfa  hay  that  is  exceptionally  well  matured  is  preferred 
for  horses.  (See  pages  428  to  436.) 


Fin.   133.    The  quantity  of  alfalfa  hay  fed  to  horses  should  be  limited. 
[Courtesy  Nebraska  Experiment  Station.] 

Rations  for.  Sheep. 

Our  reports  on  alfalfa  as  a  feed  for  sheep  are  rather  scant,  but  the 
indications  are  that  it  makes  excellent  feed  for  them.  Alfalfa  hay  is  sup- 
plemented with  silage,  fodder  or  other  coarse  roughage,  with  pasturage 
and  with  small  amounts  of  grain.  Of  course,  the  rations,  as  with  other 
animals,  vary  with  the  sheep  and  the  object  in  feeding — whether  they  are 
breeding  stock,  sheep  for  wool,  or  for  mutton.  (See  pages  417  to  419.) 

ALFALFA  FOR  POULTRY. 

Growers  are  unanimous  in  their  praises  of  alfalfa  as  a  feed  for  poultry. 
The  leaves  constitute  the  valuable  part  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  and  are 
eaten  by  all  kinds  of  poultry  with  great  relish.  This  is  a  very  happy 
circumstance  so  far  as  economy  is  concerned,  for  the  shattered  leaves  left 
in  the  barns,  the  mangers,  the  feeding  racks,  the  feed  lots,  and  by  the 
baler,  may  be  saved  and  readily  converted  into  cash  through  the  medium 
of  laying  hens.  Alfalfa  leaves  increase  egg  production  wonderfully,  and 
are  excellent  to  put  the  hens  in  a  healthy  condition — to  "tone  them  up," 
as  one  grower  expresses  it. 


146 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


147 


FIG.   135.    Carcasses  of  range  lambs  fattened  on  alfalfa  and  corn. 
[Coui-tesy  Kansas  Experiment   Station.] 


FIG.   136.    A  cutter  for  chopping  alfalfa  hay  into  short  lengths,  to  be  used 
as  feed  for  chickens. —  [Courtesy  Smalley  Mfg.  Co.] 


148 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


It  is  the  practice  of  a  few  growers  to  save  their  last  cutting  of  alfalfa 
hay  for  poultry,  although  any  cutting  is  good.  The  hay  is  generally 
put  through  a  cutter.  Some  people  cut  it  in  six-  or  eight-inch  lengths, 
while  others  cut  it  as  fine  as  possible.  Still  others  grind  it  into  a  meal. 

Alfalfa  as  a  winter  feed  for  poultry  is  very  frequently  scalded  or 
soaked.  It  is  often  fed  in  this  condition  with  bran  or  grain  as  a  warm 
mash  on  winter  mornings.  Still  there  are  many  growers  who  prefer  to 
feed  it  dry.  Few  growers  mention  the  amount  of  alfalfa  it  is  proper  to 
feed.  One  grower  reports  that  100  hens  will  consume  three  bushels  of 
leaves  per  week.  However,  grain  should  always  form  a  very  large  part 
of  the  poultry  ration. 


FlG.  137.    Alfalfa  pasturage  keeps  the  hens  in  good  condition  and  makes  them  lay. 
[Courtesy  National  Alfalfa  Journal.] 

During  the  growing  season  alfalfa  is  most  economically  fed  by  per- 
mitting the  poultry  to  have  free  range  over  the  fields. 

The  following  reports  indicate  the  ideas  of  growers  about  alfalfa  as 
a  poultry  feed: 

Logan  county:  "It  is  great  for  laying  hens.  Winter  morning  feed  on 
this  farm  consists  of  scalded  alfalfa  leaves  and  shorts,  all  they  can  eat." 

Wallace  county:  "Take  alfalfa  leaves  and  mix  some  ground  milo 
shorts,  bran  or  corn  meal  with  them;  pour  boiling  water  over  the  mix- 
ture at  night ;  cover  the  vessel  and  let  it  steam.  It  will  be  fine  feed  in 
the  morning,  especially  in  the  winter." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  149 

Crawford  county:  "We  bale  leaves  and  store  them  for  winter  feed, 
with  excellent  results." 

Harper  county:  'Horses  shatter  the  leaves,  which  I  find  are  relished 
by  all  fowls." 

Meade  county:  "We  feed  cured  leaves  in  the  winter.  They  keep  the 
fowls  healthy  and  increase  the  laying1." 

Grant  county:  "The  hens  roam  the  field  all  the  year  except  during 
the  three  winter  months.  They  do  fine  on  it." 

(See  pages  436  to  438.) 

FEEDING  VALUE   OF   BROWN    HAY. 

Twelve  per  cent  of  the  growers  reporting  have  found  the  feeding 
value  of  alfalfa  hay  which  has  turned  brown  in  the  stack  to  be  better 
than  that  of  bright,  well-cured  hay;  33  per  cent  have  found  it  to  be  as 
good;  23  per  cent  have  found  it  to  be  nearly  as  good;  25  per  cent  have 
found  it  to  be  three-fourths  as  good;  and  7  per  cent  have  found  it  to  be 
one-half  as  good,  or  less.  It  is  considered  good  for  cattle  especially,  al- 
though swine  and  sheep  are  also  mentioned.  All  those  who  mention 
horses  seem  to  think  that  it  is  not  good  horse  feed.  It  is  agreed  by  prac- 
tically all  reporters  that  brown  alfalfa  hay  is  good  only  when  it  has  be- 
come discolored  through  the  fermentation  of  its  own  juices  and  not 
through  the  the  effects  of  outside  moisture  or  the  weather.  The  fermen- 
tation takes  place  when  the  hay  is  put  up  a  little  "green";  not  so  green, 
though,  that  it  is  blackened  or  burned.  Individual  reports  about  brown 
hay  read  like  this: 

Mitchell  county:  "I  have  found  that  cattle  like  it  better  and  give 
better  gains." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  think  it  better  than  green,  but  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say  how  much.  Cattle  relish  it  more." 

Russell  county:  "Better  than  green,  and  more  relished  by  cattle  and 
hogs." 

Russell  county:  "On  first  crop  very  good  if  fed  to  beef  cattle.  It  is 
not  good  for  horses." 

Johnson  county:   "Good  for  dairy  cattle." 

Douglas  county:  "We  want  our  hay  to  brown  in  mow  or  stack,  but 
not  from  rain  or  dew.  The  process  of  heating  and  going  through  the 
sweat  softens  the  stem  so  that  lambs  will  eat  it  more  readily.  Also  the 
leaves  will  not  shatter  off  while  handling  the  hay.  We  have  tried  plac- 
ing brown  and  bright  hay  in  racks  alternately.  Lambs  will  always  eat 
the  brown  hay  first.  Last  winter  we  fed  2000  lambs;  in  the  winter  be- 
fore 4000  lambs.  We  have  been  feeding  for  seven  years." 

Wallace  county:  "If  not  moldy  or  dusty  it  is  better  than  lots  of 
brighter-looking  hay  that  has  been  left  too  long  in  the  swath  or  the 
windrow." 

•Harvey  county:  "If  from  heating  in  the  stack  or  shed,  and  not  moldy, 
it  has  lost  in  weight  but  not  in  feeding  value." 

Marshall  county:  "If  browned  without  foreign  moisture  it  is  good — 
equal  to  well-cured  hay." 

Allen  county:  "If  discolored  by  storing  too  green  the  feeding 
value  is  still  very  good,  while  if  discolored  by  constant  exposure  to  sun 
and  rain  the  quality  is  very  poor." 


150  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Osage  county:  "There  is  a  certain  stage  of  curing  alfalfa  when  if 
stacked  it  will  pack  together  and  turn  brown,  but  not  mold.  It  is  then 
very  palatable  to  stock.  I  have  read  a  great  deal  about  this  kind  of  hay 
being  better  than  any  other,  and  also  have  been  told  that  it  is  sought 
after  on  the  market." 

Pottawatomie  county:  "Alfalfa  should  be  put  up  green  enough  to 
make  it  light  brown  in  the-  middle  of  the  stack.  Then  it  makes  the  best 
feed." 

BEES  AND  ALFALFA. 

The  benefits  from  bees  in  alfalfa,  where  a  seed  crop  is  raised,  are 
mutual.  The  bees  are  most  efficient  pollinizers  and  cause  an  excellent 
"set"  of  seed,  while  the  nectar  from  alfalfa  blossoms  makes  honey  of  the 
highest  quality.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  are  limited,  however,  to  the 
period  of  blossoming.  When  hay  is  cut,  and  the  plants  are  allowed  to  be- 
come only  10  per  cent  in  bloom,  the  pasturage  is  especially  limited. 
Those  alfalfa  growers  who  keep  bees  are,  as  a  rule,  well  pleased  with  the 
results.  (See  pages  401  to  403.) 

EFFECT  OF  ALFALFA  ON  SUCCEEDING  CROPS. 

That  alfalfa  has,  in  the  long  run,  a  beneficial  effect  on  succeeding 
crops  is  the  opinion  of  practically  all  growers.  In  the  first  few  seasons 
immediately  following  the  plowing  up  of  an  alfalfa  field,  however,  the 
crops  planted  have  a  tendency  to  grow  too  luxuriantly  and  to  suffer  there- 
for in  times  of  little  moisture.  When  there  is  an  abundance  of  moisture, 
crops  immediately  following  alfalfa  give  phenomenal  yields.  After  two  or 
three  years,  crops  grown  on  alfalfa  ground  are  reported  uniformly  to 
give  much  higher  yields  than  those  grown  on  other  similar  ground,  and 
the  difference  is  noticeable  for  some  time  afterward. 

To  show  the  effect  on  the  soil,  the  following  reports  are  quoted : 

Chautauqua  county:  "Alfalfa  is  the  best  and  cheapest  fertilizer  Kan- 
sas has." 

Washington  county :  "Alfalfa  is  a  great  soil  builder.  The  first  succeed- 
ing crop  is  not  usually  as  good  as  the  following  crops." 

Greenwood  county:  "It  makes  the  ground  loose  and  rich.  It  is  better 
the  second  year  than  the  first." 

Nemaha  county:  "Alfalfa  enriches  the  soil  in  nitrogen,  but  seems  to 
exhaust  the  subsoil  moisture,  so  that  corn  suffers  in  a  dry  year  following 
alfalfa." 

Chautauqua  county:   " Alfalfa  materially  improves  the  soil." 

Decatur  county:  "Alfalfa  enriches  the  ground  and  causes  it  to  produce 
large  yields  of  corn." 

"Reno  county:  "I  think  alfalfa  makes  the  ground  as  good  as  if  thirty 
loads  of  manure  had  been  applied." 

Crawford  county:  "Alfalfa  builds  up  land  and  saves  the  farmer  from 
buying  commercial  fertilizer."  • 

Riley  county:  After  ground  has  been  in  alfalfa  a  few  years  it  is  as 
good  as  new." 

Montgomery  county:  "It  simply  puts  the  land  back  in  its  original 
stage." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  151 

The  necessity  of  moisture  for  crops  immediately  succeeding  alfalfa  is 
indicated  by  such  reports  as  these : 

Mitchell  county:  "Leaves  the  soil  very  dry  usually.  The  soil  is  rich 
in  plant-food  elements  left  in  the  roots,  especially  the  nitrates.  These 
cause  luxuriance  in  small  grains  in  early  spring  and  suckering  in  maize. 
Crops  burn  without  plenty  of  moisture." 

Montgomery  county:  "Increases  plant  growth  in  wheat,  kafir  and  all 
field  crops.  Sometimes  this  stimulus  causes  too  much  leaf  surface,  that 
must  be  maintained  during  the  dry  months." 

Cloud  county:  "In  cornfields,  wet  year,  heavy  crop;  dry  year,  nothing, 
even  less  than  on  ground  where  alfalfa  has  not  been  planted." 

Lane  county:  "Depends  on  the  season.  If  plenty  of  moisture,  corn  will 
do  well;  if  dry,  will  not  do  anything.  It  is  the  same  with  wheat." 

Morris  county:  "It  seems  to  enrich  the  land,  producing  lots  if  a  wet 
season.  Corn  sometimes  burns  quickly  if  the  year  following  happens  to 
be  dry." 

Reno  county:  "Corn  seems  to  go  too  much  to  stalk,  and  can  not  stand 
drouth.  Wheat  goes  too  much  to  straw,  and  lodges.  Kafir  is  best  to 
follow." 

Cloud  county:  "Crops  after  alfalfa  are  usually  light  unless  there  is 
abundant  moisture." 

Republic  county:  "It  takes  lots  of  moisture  to  mature  crops  following 
alfalfa." 

Shawnee  county:  "Corn  in  a  dry  year  is  almost  a  failure;  in  a  wet 
year  it  gives  large  yields." 

Labette  county:  "It  increases  the  growth  of  stalk  and  leaf  particularly. 
Kafir  gave  us  eighteen  tons  of  silage  per  acre  in  1914  on  alfalfa  sod 
broken  the  winter  before.  Corn  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  drouth  on 
alfalfa  sod,  due  to  excessive  growth." 

(See  pages  462  to  468,  and  Fig.  138.) 

BEST  CROPS  TO  FOLLOW  ALFALFA. 

Analysis  of  the  data  at  hand  indicates  that  the  best  crops  immediately 
to  follow  alfalfa  are  those  best  able  to  resist  dry  weather,  or  crops  not 
expected  to  mature  grain.  The  grain  sorghums,  such  as  kafir,  milo  and 
feterita,  silage  crops,  and  crops  intended  for  forage,  such  as  "cane,"  are 
best.  Potatoes  are  also  said  to  do  quite  well  in  regions  where  they  are 
ordinarily  successful.  Corn  is  preferred  before  oats  and  oats  before 
wheat.  However,  small  grains  grow  too  rank,  and  lodge ;  corn  for  grain  is 
liable  to  "fire"  or  "burn";  and  neither  small  grains  nor  corn  may  be  de- 
pended upon  to  mature  grain  unless  there  is  a  great  abundance  of 
moisture. 

A  few  reports  on  this  subject  are  quoted : 

McPherson  county:  "Some  of  the  sorghums,  or  next  best,  corn  for  the 
silo,  because  unless  conditions  are  very  good  only  a  drouth-resistant  plant 
will  produce  grain." 

Jewell  county:  "'Cane,'  kafir  or  some  similar  crop,  more  drouth-re- 
sisting." 

Labette  county:  "Kafir  or  some  other  surghum  for  grain  or  silage. 
We  do  not  use  'cane,'  on  account  of  lodging.  Kafir  will  stand  up  well  and 
mature  a  crop  well  without  injury  from  drouth." 


152 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


1 


o\ 


\ 


^  7c/ 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  153 

Chase  county :  "Kafir  first  year,  as  it  takes  more  moisture  than  we  gen- 
erally get  to  raise  anything  else  on  alfalfa  sod." 

Harvey  county:  "Kafir,  as  it  stands  dry  weather,  and  if  rank  makes 
good  silage." 

Marshall  county:  "Corn  or  kafir.  On  my  kind  of  land  sorghum  gets 
too  rank  to  handle;  wheat  or  oats  lodge  badly;  kafir  stands  drouth  well, 
but  makes  less  tonnage  than  corn,  so  is  not  best  for  silage." 

Marshall  county :  "Causes  heavy  growth  of  corn.  If  this  does  not  ear 
well  it  is  used  for  silage." 

Mitchell  county:  "Sorghums  (feterita  or  kafir),  as  they  stand  lack  of 
moisture." 

Rooks  county:  "In  this  locality  'cane'  or  kafir,  because  they  will  die 
and  yet  live." 

Jewell  county:  "Oats  or  kafir.  Oats  get  their  moisture  early  in  the 
season.  Kafir  is  not  affected  by  the  oversupply  of  nitrogen  as  is  corn." 

Reno  county :  "Potatoes.    They  make  a  big  yield,  with  no  scab." 

Washington  county:  "Wheat  following  alfalfa  grows  rank,  with  poor 
yield.  Corn  'fires'  during  a  week  or  two  of  dry  weather.  Oats  seem  to  be 
best  adapted  to  follow.  These  results  agree  with  neighborhood  ex- 
perience." 

Osborne  county:  "My  experience  is  that  after  plowing  you  don't 
realize  much  unless  it  is  an  exceptionally  wet  season.  After  the  first  and 
second  crops  you  get  good  results  for  several  years.  It  is  a  good  soil 
builder." 

Rooks  county:  "Have  met  with  no  success.  The  roots  extract  all 
moisture  from  soil  to  a  great  depth,  consequently  the  first  crop  is  a  fail- 
ure if  it  is  not  an  extra  wet  season." 

Marshall  county:  "Causes  very  rapid  and  rank  growth  of  almost  any 
kind  of  succeeding  crop,  and  makes  said  crop  of  such  tenderness  as  to  be 
easily  injured  by  drouth,  especially  corn." 

Mitchell  county:  "Causes  tremendous  growth  of  stalk  in  either  wheat 
or  corn,  with  very  little  grain  in  the  ear." 

Ottawa  county:  "We  find  that  unless  we  have  plenty  of  moisture  the 
crop  will  burn  the  first  few  years  on  ground  that  has  been  in  alfalfa  for 
ten  to  fifteen  years." 

Pawnee  county :  "Subsoil  too  dry  to  raise  a  crop  first  year  after  plow- 
ing; the  succeeding  crops  improve." 

Russell  county:  "My  first  crop  usually  burns.  After  that  it  is  all 
right." 

Dickinson  county:  "Seems  to  dry  out  the  first  year.  Thereafter  crops 
have  a  dark  rich  color  and  are  heavy." 

Riley  county:  "It  depends  on  the  season.  If  dry,  corn  will  not  do  well 
the  first  year,  but  it  is  all  right  after  that." 

However,  if  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  years  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  plowing  of  alfalfa,  the  succeeding  crops  make  wonderful 
yields. 

Ottawa  county:  "Causes  any  crop  following  to  grow  very  rank,  and  in 
case  of  corn,  if  plenty  of  rainfall,  makes  phenomenal  yield." 

Wabaunsee  county :  "Ventilates  and  enriches  the  soil.  Generally  have 
excellent  crops  for  some  years  after." 


154  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


PIG.  139.    A  crop  of  kafir  in  Rooks  county,  immediately  following  alfalfa. 

Harvey  county:  "Corn  grows  very  rank,  also  wheat,  a  few  years  after 
breaking.  I  have  a  field  broken  six  years  ago.  The  beneficial  effects  are 
plainly  to  be  seen  yet." 

Wyandotte  county:   "Fine.     Boosts  potatoes." 

Comanche  county:   "Increases  the  yield  first  year  60  per  cent." 

Coffey  county:  "I  plowed  under  a  heavy  crop  of  alfalfa  on  black  river 
land  and  then  planted  it  to  wheat.  The  yield  was  34  bushels  per  acre  for 
two  years.  The  field  adjoining  yielded  24  bushels  of  the  same  kind  of 
wheat  in  these  two  years." 

Cloud  county :  "The  second  year  after  plowing  alfalfa  ground  the  dif- 
ference in  the  same  field  of  wheat  was  20  bushels — 38  bushels  on  alfalfa 
ground  and  18  bushels  on  the  other  ground." 

*    Clay  county:    "Wheat  40  bushels  to  the  acre  when  the  rest  of  the 
wheat  froze  out  on  the  farm." 

Cowley  county:  "It  is  great.  I  knew  of  one  field  making  54  bushels 
of  wheat  per  acre  after  it  had  been  plowed  two  years." 

Sheridan  county:  "I  plowed  thirty  acres  that  was  four  years  old,  and 
sowed  to  barley.  It  yielded  twice  as  much  as  that  on  corn  ground." 

Harvey  county:  "It  increases  the  yield  wonderfully,  except  in  very 
dry  times.  We  got  50  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  last  year  on  alfalfa 
ground  and  35  bushels  on  other  ground,  and  75  bushels  of  oats  one  year 
on  alfalfa  ground  and  50  bushels  on  other  ground.  There  are  less  weeds 
and  clods  and  more  humus  in  alfalfa  ground." 

Marion  county :  "Very  good  with  wheat  and  oats.  It  has  about  doubled 
in  yield." 

Lyon  county:  "It  has  doubled  the  yield  on  oats,  wheat  and  corn." 
Washington  county :  "Corn  yield  nearly  doubled ;  also  wheat  yields." 

Pratt  county:  "I  have  raised  double  the  amount  on  alfalfa  land  that 
I  raised  on  adjoining  land." 

Lyon  county :  "After  four  or  five  years  it  will  double  the  yield  of  corn 
on  the  same  ground." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


155 


Butler  county:   "Increase  corn  yield  33%  per  cent." 

Geary  county:  "It  renews  the  land  and  will  produce  50  per  cent  more 
corn  than  land  of  the  same  kind  that  has  been  in  other  crops." 

Harper  county:  "I  have  raised  30  per  cent  more  corn  on  old  alfalfa 
ground  than  on  the  same  kind  of  land  in  other  crops." 

Riley  county :  "Corn  will  make  50  per  cent  more  after  alfalfa." 

Kingman  county:  "Increased  yield  of  corn  100  per  cent.  If  followed 
with  wheat  there  will  be  too  much  straw." 

Washington  county:  "Corn  this  year  (1915)  on  alfalfa  ground  will 
yield  from  25  to  50  per  cent  more  than  on  wheat  or  corn  ground." 

Woodson  county:  "We  have  never  followed  alfalfa  with  any  crop 
that  was  not  benefited  as  much  as  25  per  cent.  One  field  we  had  in  corn 
for  several  years,  and  it  still  shows  good  effects  of  the  alfalfa.  Last 
year  this  field  made  an  average  of  70  bushels  to  the  acre." 

Norton  county :  "Corn  makes  80  bushels  to  the  acre  on  alfalfa  ground." 

Marshall  county:  "It  has  a  very  good  effect.  A  great  upbuilder  of 
soils.  It  makes  60  bushels  of  corn  where  only  35  grew  before.  Corn 
makes  a  very  rank  growth  after  alfalfa  and  is  easily  hurt  by  drouth." 

Shawnee  county:  "Corn,  30  bushels;  alfalfa  five  years;  corn,  70 
bushels." 

Jefferson  county:  "It  increases  growth  if  there  is  plenty  of  moisture. 
Corn  made  80  bushels  to  the  acre,  while  wheat  fell  down  and  failed  to 
fill." 

Greenwood  county:  "I  raised  90  bushels  of  corn  on  ground  that  had 
been  in  alfalfa  ten  years." 

Riley  county:  "The  effect  is  great.  I  have  known  of  land  raising  20 
bushels  of  corn  more  to  the  acre." 

Greenwood  county:  "Always  followed  with  corn.  Last  year  (second 
year)  I  harvested  15  tons  kafir  per  acre,  some  of  which  threshed  60 
bushels  to  the  acre." 

ROTATION  WITH  ALFALFA. 

Few  if  any  of  the  growers  reporting  have  worked  out  a  definite  scheme 
of  rotation  with  alfalfa  as  one  of  the  crops.  It  is  the  custom  to  follow 
alfalfa  with  the  ordinary  farm  crops,  such  as  sorghums,  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  millet,  "cane"  and  potatoes.  Probably  the  long  life  of  the  average 
field  makes  orderly  rotation  with  other  crops  somewhat  inconvenient. 

PLOWING  ALFALFA. 
TABLE  No.  13.     Preference  of  growers  as  to  time  of  plowing  alfalfa. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Favoring  fall  plowing  

57 

66 

77 

70 

Favoring  spring  plowing  

39 

31 

18 

27 

Favoring  winter  plowing  

4 

3 

5 

4 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  depths  of 
plowing  alfalfa  sod. 


156  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

TABLE  No.  14.     Preference  of  growers  as  to  depth  to  plow  alfalfa  sod. 


Western 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Central 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

Eastern 
third  of 
the  state, 
per  cent. 

The  state 
as  a 
whole, 
per  cent. 

Favoring  deep  plowing 

44 

38 

61 

48 

Favoring  medium  plowing 

9 

15 

15 

15 

Favoring  shallow  plowing  

47 

47 

24 

37 

Here  are  a  few  reports: 

.  Cherokee  county:  "The  deeper  you  plow  the  smaller  the  roots  and  the 
easier  cut." 

Russell  county:  "You  can't  break  shallow  and  keep  the  plow  in  and  do 
a  good  job." 

Jefferson  county:  "Shallow  if  you  want  to  kill  the  plants.  Then  fol- 
low by  deep  tillage." 

Rice  county:  "Deep  if  stand  is  thin;  if  not,  plow  shallower,  disk  well, 
and  harrow." 

Trego  county:  "Turn  it  shallow  in  summer  or  fall  and  plow  deep  the 
following  spring." 

Osage  county:  "We  plow  shallow,  just  below  the  crowns,  to  make  a 
seed  bed.  The  alfalfa  has  done  the  rest  far  better  than  we  could  with 
all  the  teams  and  tools  on  the  place." 

ENEMIES   OF  ALFALFA. 

The  chief  enemies  of  alfalfa  in  Kansas  are  grasshoppers,  gophers, 
foxtail,  crabgrass,  webworms  and  army  worms,  in  the  order  named. 

Minor  enemies,  mentioned  here 
and  there,  are  Russion  thistles, 
dodder,  cutworms,  sandburs,  prai- 
rie dogs,  and  some  of  the  native 
grasses.  The  following  figures, 
tabulated  from  the  replies,  indi- 
cate in  percentages  the  relative 
importance  of  the  chief  enemies 
of  alfalfa  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  state: 


FIG.  140.  Plow  for  turning  alfalfa  sod, 
with  attachment  for  cutting  the  roots  at  the 
outer  edge  of  the  succeeding  furrow. — 
[Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


TABLE  No.  15.     Enemies  of  alfalfa. 


Westein 

Central 

Eastern 

The  state 

third  of 

third  of 

third  of 

as  a 

the  state, 

the  state, 

the  state, 

whole, 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

68 

34 

20 

34 

16 

24 

14 

18 

Foxtail                                   

11 

14 

18 

15 

4 

15 

16 

14 

Webworms                                            '•  

1 

10 

13 

10 

Army  worms  

3 

19 

9 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  157 

A  study  of  this  table  reveals  the  fact  that  grasshoppers  and  gophers 
are  the  most  troublesome  in  the  western  third  of  the  state,  and  as  one 
progresses  eastward  their  relative  importance  decreases.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  troublesome  weeds  and  grasses,  foxtail  and  crab  grass,  in- 
crease as  one  progresses  eastward,  the  same  being  true  with  webworms. 
Reports  of  Russian  thistles,  dodder,  prairie  dogs,  sandburs  and  native 
grasses  practically  all  come  from  the  western  third  of  the  state,  while 
those  of  cutworms  come  chiefly  from  the  eastern  and  central  thirds  of 
the  state.  (See  pages  332  to  400.) 

Grasshoppers. 

The  depredations  of  the  grasshopper  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  state 
are  not  regularly  serious.  The  damage  usually  occurs  in  the  late  sum- 
mer or  fall  along  the  edges  of  the  newly-sown  fields,  in  a  strip,  say,  one 
to  three  rods  wide.  As  one  progresses  westward  the  damage  becomes 
greater;  parts  of  new  fields  are  sometimes  destroyed,  and  the  insects 
are  especially  injurious  to  seed  crops. 

Marion  county:  "They  spoil  some  seed  nearly  every  year  and  often 
take  parts  of  new  fields." 

Dickinson  county:  "In  1914  they  took  eighteen  acres  of  spring  seed- 
ing after  it  was  cut  once." 

Ellis  county :  "One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  growing  alfalfa  in  west- 
ern Kansas." 

Ellis  county:  "Thirty  acres  eaten  bare  last  spring." 

Rawlins  county:  "I  have  had  them  take  the  seed  crop,  and  sometimes 
almost  take  the  hay  crop." 

Pratt  county:   "My  worst  enemy." 

Wichita  county:  "We  have  had  them  keep  the  alfalfa  down  all  sum- 
mer, after  the  first  crop." 


FIG.  141.    A  flock  of  turkeys  in  an  alfalfa  field  is  said  to  be  an  economical  means  of 
fighting  grasshoppers.     They  destroy  the  grasshoppers  and  thrive  on  them. 


158  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Reports  like  these  indicate  that  grasshoppers  may  at  times  become  a 
very  serious  pest.  However,  returns  also  indicate  that  they  may  be  con- 
trolled. The  most  popular  and  effective  remedy  reported  is  that  of 
poisoned  bran  mash,  the  formulae  and  the  method  of  application  of  which 
is  treated  on  page  377  of  this  volume.  Another  remedy  used  is 
the  hopperdozer,  described  on  page  378.  Not  a  few  growers  de- 
clare a  flock  of  turkeys  or  chickens  to  be  the  most  efficient  and  economical 
means  of  fighting  grasshoppers.  They  not  only  destroy  the  grasshoppers, 
but  also  derive  great  benefit  from  the  food  thus  consumed.  Disking  or 
harrowing  in  early  spring  to  destroy  grasshopper  eggs  is  seldom  men- 
tioned. 

A  few  reports  follow: 

Ford  county:  "We  have  'hoppers'  here  nearly  every  year,  but  they  can 
easily  be  controlled  with  poison." 

Wichita  county:  "Poisoned  bran  mash  does  the  work.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  several  times  a  season." 

Montgomery  county:  "Last  year  grasshoppers  damaged  our  alfalfa 
very  much.  We  used  Paris  green  and  bran  mixture  with  good  results." 

Ness  county:  "We  use  the  'dozer,'  poisoned  bran  mash,  and  keep  clean 
hedgerows." 

Gray  county:  "I  run  over  the  field  after  each  cutting  with  a  tank  filled 
with  kerosene,  fastened  to  a  go-devil,  and  catch  them.  Make  tank  out  of 
galvanized  iron  and  set  on  go-devil;  fill  pan  with  water  and  have  a  skim 
of  kerosene  on  top.  Drive  over  the  field  several  times." 

Pratt  county:  "We  fight  grasshoppers  with  turkeys,  and  find  it 
profitable." 

Logan  county:  "We  fight  grasshoppers  with  young  chicks,  having 
portable  concrete  coops,  which  we  distribute  throughout  the  field." 

Jackson  county:  "The  part  of  the  field  near  the  chicken  house  is  never 
hurt  by  grasshoppers." 

Greenwood  county:  "Hogs  our  best  remedy — sure  cure;  turkeys,  sec- 
ond; hopperdozer,  third;  poison  and  bran,  last. 

Ottawa  county:  "Keep  a  big  flock  of  turkeys." 

(See  pages  374  to  379.) 

Gophers. 

The  seriousness  of  the  gopher  pest  in  alfalfa  fields  is  second  only  to 
that  of  the  grasshopper.  Their  burrows  and  mounds  interfere  with  the 
operations  of  harvesting,  while  they  themselves  destroy  many  alfalfa 
plants.  Instances  are  reported  where  fields  have  been  completely  de- 
stroyed, or  at  least  so  damaged  that  it  was  necessary  to  plow  them. 
.Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  growers  believe  poisoning  to  be  the  most 
efficient  and  economical  means  of  destroying  gophers.  Trapping  ranks 
second  in  popularity.  Another  method  of  extermination  is  to  offer  small 
boys  a  bounty  of  ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  head  for  catching  them,  which,  in 
addition  to  the  bounty  offered  by  the  county,  is  often  sufficient  to  con- 
trol them.  Several  other  methods  are  mentioned,  such  as  suffocation 
with  carbon  bisulphide,  shooting,  keeping  cats,  and  the  encouragement  of 
snakes,  but  these  are  not  in  general  use.  On  irrigated  land  they  may  be 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  159 

readily  drowned.     A  peculiarity  reported  is  that  gophers  do  not  usually 
work  in  black  gumbo  land.    (See  pages  353  to  365.) 
The  following  reports  bear  on  the  subject: 

Geary  county:  "I  have  had  lots  of  grief — getting  dirt  in  the  mower 
sickle,  horses  stepping  in  the  runway  and  so  forth — and  have  hired  them 
trapped  at  fifteen  cents  each." 

Jefferson  county:  "They  make  vexatious  mounds.  We  poison  and 
trap." 

Marshall  county:  "Gophers  are  bad,  as  they  make  it  so  hard  to  mow. 
We  have  tried  trapping,  but  that  is  pretty  slow.  I  think  poison  is  better." 

Riley  county:  "Gophers  throw  up  mounds  and  make  it  bad  to  mow. 
Poison  with  strychnine  in  prunes,  raisins,  apples  or  sweet  potatoes. 
Patented  preparations  are  not  worth  anything." 

Comanche  county:  "They  have  ruined  some  fields  for  me.  We  plowed 
the  fields  because  it  was  too  big  a  job  to  kill  them." 

Mitchell  county:  "Gophers  took  one  field  for  me.  I  used  potatoes  and 
prunes  poisoned  with  strychnine  to  exterminate  them." 

Doniphan  county:  "Trap  and  poison  them.  We  fight  all  the  time  to 
hold  them  in  check." 

Jackson  county:  "I  load  raisins  with  strychnine  and  drop  in  runs. 
Gophers  are  very  troublesome  if  you  don't." 

Marshall  county:  "They  are  bad  unless  you  keep  them  in  check  by 
poisoning." 

Mitchell  county:  "A  great  nuisance.    Trap  them  and  poison  them." 

Nemaha  county:  "They  have  been  very  troublesome.  I  use  strychnine, 
placing  a  grain  in  a  small  potato  and  introducing  it  into  their  runs.  Leave 
the  hole  open." 

Pottawatomie  county :  "I  have  kept  gophers  out  of  100  acres  of  alfalfa 
with  potatoes  and  strychnine." 

Kingman  county:  "Cats  will  catch  them  near  the  buildings.  I  pay  the 
boys  ten  cents  apiece  for  trapping  and  see  that  they  get  their  pay  from 
the  county." 

Barber  county:  "My  alfalfa  is  mostly  on  heavy  ground,'  with  no 
gophers.  I  had  sixty  acres  a  few  years  ago  on  light  ground;  they  got  it." 

The  elimination  of  weeds  and  grasses  is  treated  on  pages  55  to  62, 
and  332  to  338. 

Webworms. 

The  extent  of  the  damage  by  webworms  and  the  method  of  fighting 
them  are  clearly  set  forth  in  the  following  reports : 

Franklin  county:  "The  webworm  destroyed  one  crop  by  eating  and 
forming  a  web  over  the  field.  They  disappeared  in  a  short  time." 

Sedgwick  county:  "We  have  never  fought  the  webworms,  as  they 
usually  last  only  a  week  to  ten  days." 

Labette  county:  "When  the  web-forming  caterpillar,  which  eats  the  top 
of  the  growing  stem  as  well  as  spins  a  web  over  it,  appears,  we  cut  at 
once,  no  matter  what  the  stage  of  growth.  They  seldom  attack  the  sub- 
sequent growth.  They  have  either  starved  or  completed  their  life  cycle." 

Chase  county:  "Sometimes  the  webworm  strikes  a  field.  I  think  it 
best  to  cut  at  once  to  give  the  next  crop  a  chance." 


160  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Montgomery  county:  "The  webworm  has  done  us  some  damage.  We 
have  mowed  as  quickly  as  possible  and  disk-harrowed." 

Comanche  county:  "Webworms  bother  some  years.  We  try  to  mow 
when  we  see  them  come." 

Crawford  county:  "Mow  it  or  pasture  it  when  you  find  it  infested." 

Marion  county:  "The  webworm  has  ruined  several  crops.  I  mowed 
the  fields  at  once,  regardless  of  the  stage  of  growth." 

Montgomery  county:  "We  have  never  fought  except  to  cut  as  soon  as 
the  webworm  makes  its  appearance." 

Russell  county:  "Once  when  in  bloom  for  seed  crop  the  webworm  tied 
the  blossoms.  We  cut  the  crop  for  hay  and  they  did  not  return." 

(See  page  386.) 

Army  Worms. 
On  the  subject  of  army  worms  the  following  reports  are  submitted: 

Brown  county:  "I  have  had  army  worms  twice  in  sixteen  years.  Each 
time  they  stayed  a  month  and  then  left.  I  lost  a  crop  each  time." 

Russell  county:  "We  have  had  the  army  worm  once  or  twice  in  the 
last  twenty  years,  but  they  don't  last  long." 

Atchison  county:  "The  spring  army  worm  ate  it  down  after  it  was 
mown  for  about  ten  days  last  year.  They  disappeared  until  the  second 
cutting  was  about  ready  to  cut,  and  then  stripped  it." 

Nemaha  county:  "The  army  worm  was  troublesome  in  1914  and  de- 
layed the  starting  of  the  second  crop  by  eating  off  the  new  growth  when 
it  appeared." 

Ottawa  county:  "Army  worms  have  bothered  some  in  wet  years.  A 
good  way  to  do  after  cutting  and  getting  the  hay  off,  is  to  harrow  the 
field  on  a  bright  sunshiny  day.  They  can  not  stand  the  hot  sun,  and  un- 
covering them  with  the  harrow  gets  the  most  of  them." 

Linn  county:  "When  I  find  army  worms  working  in  my  alfalfa  I  turn 
in  a  lot  of  young  shoats  and  scatter  shelled  corn  where  the  worms  are 
working.  The  shoats  will  get  the  corn  and  worms." 

Crawford  county:  "Army  worms  made  a  raid  and  the  hogs  did  the 
work." 

Jefferson  county:  "A  lot  of  complaint  was  heard  here  of  army  worms 
last  year.  I  let  the  hogs  eat  them." 

Anderson  county:  "Army  worms  took  possession  and  ate  a  near-by 
field.  A  herd  of  sows  and  pigs  met  them  at  the  alfalfa  fence  and  they 
did  not  go  any  further.  I  gave  the  sows  and  pigs  free  range  over  the 
place  and  they  cleaned  up  the  worms." 

Wilson  county:  "I  used  poisoned  bran  mash  for  army  worms  quite 
successfully,  after  mowing." 

Cherokee  county:  "Army  worms  were  bad  last  year.  I  used  poisoned 
bran  mash  and  cleared  the  field  over  night." 

Woodson  county:  "For  destroying  the  army  worm  running  a  heavy 
iron  roller  over  them  has  proved  a  great  benefit.  After  cutting  our  first 
1914  crop  the  ground  was  almost  covered  with  various  worms,  mostly 
cutworms,  and  I  believe  the  birds  got  most  of  them.  Be  sure  and  protect 
the  birds." 

(See  pages  379  to  384.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  161 

Cutworms. 
Cutworms  are  treated  in  like  manner: 

Osage  county:  "Cutworms  seem  to  come  about  the  last  of  May  each* 
year,  and  as  they  last  only  a  few  days  I  do  not  think  they  will  cause  much 
damage,  especially  where  hogs  have  the  run  of  the  field." 

Miami  county:  "Cutworms  and  army  worms  poisoned  with  bran  mash: 
with  good  results."  • 

Montgomery  county:  "For  cutworms  the  strip  affected  must  be  sowiw 
with  poisoned  bran  mash." 

(See  page  384.) 

Russian  Thistles. 

Reports  about  Russian  thistles  are  few,  and  one  from  Barber  county 
just  about  covers  the  ground:  "If  Russian  thistles  start  in  the  field  get 
them,  or  eventually  they  will  get  the  alfalfa.  If  alfalfa  is  of  a  thick, 
heavy  stand  you  will  have  little  trouble,  but  spots  will  grow  them  and 
they  will  spread  from  one  spot  to  another  until  they  have  soon  ruined 
nearly  the  entire  field  for  hay,  and  entirely  ruined  it  for  seed."  (See 
page  334.) 

Dodder. 

Here  are  some  of  the  reports  in  regard  to  dodder: 
Brown  county:    "Burn  the  spots  as  soon  as  discovered." 

Chase  county :  "Take  a  load  of  straw,  drive  over  the  field  and  burn  the 
dodder  wherever  we  find  any." 

Cherokee  county:   "Take  a  hoe  and  chop  it  out." 

Ellis  county:  "Cover  infested  area  with  straw  and  burn.  Some  re- 
port good  results  from  close  pasturing." 

Finney  county:  "Cut  infested  area  with  scythe,  throw  on  wagon,  haul 
off  and  burn." 

Geary  county:  "Pull  it  up  wherever  I  see  it." 

Clay  county:   "Cut  carefully  and  burn." 

Hodgeman  county:   "Cut  alfalfa  close  as  soon  as  dodder  is  seen," 

Logan  county:   "Pasture  with  horses." 

Marion  county:  "Mow  infected  field  early  and  destroy  dodder  at  once 
by  burning  hay." 

(See  page  336.) 

Prairie  Dogs. 

The  different  remedies  suggested  for  the  extermination  of  prairie  dogs 
are  as  follows: 

Cheyenne  county:  "Feed  poisoned  wheat.  It  kills  lots  of  them  in  early 
spring." 

Ellis  county:   "Poison  them  with  the  'dope'  the  state  sends  out." 

Hodgeman  county:  "I  have  trapped,  shot,  and  used  the  Manhattan 
formula  successfully." 

Ellis  county:  "Put  a  short  hose  in  the  burrow  and  pour  a  pint  of  gas- 
oline into  it.  After  five  minutes  set  it  on  fire  and  plug  it." 

Pratt  county:  "Carbon  bisulphide  puts  them  out  of  business  without 
delay/' 

—6 


162  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Wallace  county:  "Use  prairie-dog  poison  on  wheat  in  early  spring 
before  the  grass  starts.  Use  bisulphide  of  carbon  any  time.  Take  large 
corn  cobs,  cut  in  lengths  equal  to  their  diameters,  pour  about  a  table- 
spoonful  of  the  liquid  on  a  couple  of  the  pieces  of  cpb  and  put  them  in 
the  hole.  Cover  the  hole  with  a  spadeful  of  dirt  and  tamp  solid." 

(See  page  365.) 

WINTERKILLING. 

It  is  universally  reported  that  young  alfalfa  is  much  more  susceptible 
to  winterkilling  than  old  alfalfa.  The  kind  of  weather  that  most  often 
winterkills  alfalfa  in  the  western  half  of  the  state  is  a  dry,  cold  atmos- 
phere accompanied  by  driving  winds,  especially  where  there  is  a  loose 
topsoil.  In  the  eastern  half  of  the  state  winterkilling  of  alfalfa  is 
usually  caused  either  by  heavy  sleet  or  ice  remaining  over  the  field  for  a 
considerable  period  of  time  or  by  very  wet  soil  with  hard  and  sudden 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  which  causes  the  ground  to  heave  and 
the  roots  to  break,  sometimes  lifting  the  alfalfa  plants  far  out  of  the 
ground.  The  following  are  representative  reports  covering  the  different 
phases  of  the  subject: 

Rawlins  county:  "Alfalfa  sowed  too  late  in  the  fall,  and  a  hard 
winter." 

Brown  county:   "I  never  had  any  killed  after  one  year  old." 
Cowley  county:  "1  never  had  any  to  winterkill  after  it  got  a  start." 

Finney  county:  "I  never  lost  any  alfalfa  over  one  year  old  by  winter- 
killing." 

Geary  county:   "Freezing  and  thawing  when  not  well  rooted." 

Russell  county:  "I  have  never  had  any  winterkilled  when  it  got  a  good 
:start  in  the  fall." 

Leavenworth  county :  "Thawing  and  freezing  on  newly-sown  fields." 

Allen  county:  "Thawing  and  freezing  for  young  alfalfa;  never  had 
old  alfalfa  to  winterkill." 

Cheyenne  county:   "Young  alfalfa  in  dry  and  cold  winters." 
Coffey  county:   "Freezing  and  thawing  will  kill  young  alfalfa." 

Lane  county:  "I  have  never  known  a  spring  sowing  to  winterkill  here. 
Dry,  hard,  freezing  weather  will  kill  a  fall  sowing." 

Ellsworth  county:   "A  dry  fall  and  a  dry,  cold  winter." 

Hodgeman  county:  "Extremely  dry  fall,  loose  dry  surface,  and  ex- 
tremely cold  weather." 

Phillips  county:  "Cold,  bare  winter." 

Seward  county:  "Mine  was  killed  by  having  the  ground  get  dry  and 
loose  on  top,  and  then  blowing  out  in  the  winter." 

Sherman  county:  "Close  pasturing  and  an  open,  dry  winter  with 
heavy  winds." 

Stafford  county:  "When  the  ground  is  dry  and  bare,  with  hard  freez- 
ing." 

Woodson  county:  "A  very  severe  dry  freeze  in  the  beginning  of  the 
winter  will  kill  alfalfa  mowed  late  and  immature." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  163 

Butler  county:  "Freezing  and  thawing — heaving — will  kill  young  al- 
falfa. A  dry,  cold  winter  will  kill  old  alfalfa  where  the  wind  strikes 
hard." 

Rice  county:  "Dry,  windy,  freezing  weather  for  young,  and  wet  freez- 
ing and  thawing  for  old." 

Pottawatomie  county:  "Extremely  wet  and  then  freezing  is  the  only 
trouble  we  have  had  with  old  alfalfa.  Any  dry  winter  weather  will  kill 
young  alfalfa." 

Rice  county :   "Heavy  sleet;  severe  cold  with  heavy  wind." 

Shawnee  county:  "Our  alfalfa  winterkilled  when  covered  with  sleet  a 
few  years  ago." 

Brown  county:  "Heavy  sleet  or  snow  melting  to  slush  and  freezing 
hard." 

Cloud  county:  "The  ground  covered  with  ice  for  a  long  period  in 
winter." 

Meade  county :   "Water  standing  and  freezing  will  kill  it." 

Reno  county:  "Rain  in  winter  or  spring  and  quick  freezing,  or  water 
standing  over  and  freezing." 

Riley  county:   "A  heavy  sleet  followed  by  a  long  cold  spell." 

Wabaunsee  county:  "Alfalfa  will  not  live  long  if  it  is  covered  with 
water.  The  only  serious  winterkilling  we  ever  had  was  when  a  sudden 
thaw  of  snow  came  on  the  frozen  ground  and  left  water  on  top,  followed 
by  a  severe  frost,  leaving  a  sheet  of  ice  over  the  field." 

Washington  county:  Rainy  weather  in  winter  when  the  ground  has 
thawed  out,  and  water  stands  three  to  six  inches  in  depth,  will  kill 
alfalfa." 

Geary  county:  "Sleet  that  covers  the  ground;  thawing  and  freezing 
in  a  wet  time  breaks  the  roots." 

Nemaha  county:  "Icy  or  sleety  weather;  wet,  together  with  alternate 
hard  freezing  and  thawing." 

Cloud  county:  "Where  it  is  wet  and  weather  is  very  radical  in 
changing  from  thawing  to  freezing." 

Jewell  county:  "Hard  freezing  in  wet  ground  will  heave  alfalfa  and 
cause  roots  to  be  pulled  up  or  broken  in  two." 

McPherson  county:  "Young  alfalfa  winterkilled  by  heaving  of  soil, 
caused  by  freezing  and  thawing  in  wet  weather." 

Wilson  county:  "Severe  freezing  just  after  a  long-continued  wet 
spell." 

Chase  county:  "Freezing,  thawing  and  heaving." 

Geary  county:  "Excessive  wet  weather  followed  by  severe  freezing, 
causing  ground  to  heave." 

Harvey  county:  "Wet,  with  alternate  freezing  and  thawing." 
Lincoln  county :  "Freezing  and  heaving  of  the  top  soil." 

Marion  county:  "Wet  fall,  and  intermittent  freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  ground  where  ground  is  level  and  the  water  stands." 

Marshall  county :  "A  wet  winter  with  very  hard  freezes  after  thawing, 
thus  heaving  it  out.  Young  alfalfa  is  worst  to  winterkill." 

Marshall  county:  "A  very  hard  freezing  of  a  water-soaked  soil  is  the 
worst." 


164 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Miami  county:  "Wet  spring,  freezing  at  night  and  thawing  in  the  day. 
Have  seen  alfalfa  raised  six  inches." 

Neosho  county:  "Freezing  at  night  and  thawing  during  the  day  will 
pull  it  out  of  the  ground  and  kill  it,  particularly  in  shallow  soil." 

Reno  county:  "Alternate  freezing  and  thawing  if  the  ground  is  bare 
and  loose." 

(See  pages  67  and  241.) 

OVERFLOWED   ALFALFA. 

The  effect  of  overflowing  water  upon  alfalfa  is  a  matter  about  which 
there  is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion.  Some  think  alfalfa  is  injured 
least  when  it  is  completely  submerged,  stating  that  when  a  part  is  ex- 
posed the  plants  scald  badly;  others  think  alfalfa  is  injured  least  when 
only  partially  submerged,  so  that  it  can  get  air.  Then  there  are  those  who 
believe  that  alfalfa  will  live  if  the  water  moves  in  a  current  and  will  die 
if  the  water  stands  still.  Finally,  and  considerably  in  the  majority,  are 
those  who  hold  the  opinion  that  the  length  of  time  the  water  inundates  the 
field  determines  whether  the  alfalfa  shall  live  or  die.  The  following  re- 
ports bear  on  this  subject: 

Montgomery  county :  "I  find  that  standing  water  can  completely  cover 
alfalfa  for  quite  a  time  without  injuring  it;  but  if  water  stands,  only 
partially  covering  the  alfalfa,  the  plants  will  scald  in  a  short  time." 


FiG.   142.    Pumping  water  for  irrigation. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  165 

Wabaunsee  county:  "I  have  had  some  experience  regarding  flood 
water.  I  had  about  forty  acres  of  alfalfa  which  were  many  times  flooded, 
and  I  am  quite  convinced  that  water  running  over  alfalfa  a  moderate 
length  of  time  will  not  kill  it.  However,  when  the  water  stands  on  the 
alfalfa  it  scalds  very  quickly  and  dies.  There  is  no  Question  in  my  mind 
but  that  the  length  of  time  the  water  remains  on  the  alfalfa  has  much, 
if  not  everything,  to  do  with  its  life  and  death,  and  it  does  not  take  very 
long  in  hot,  sunny  weather  to  kill  alfalfa  if  water  stands  on  it." 

Shaivnee  county:  "It  is  simply  a  matter  of  suffocation;  the  water  ex- 
cludes the  air  and  the  plants  die." 

Shawnee  county:   "The  water  causes  the  roots  to  rot." 

Shawnee  county:  "It  all  depends  on  how  long  the  water  remains  over 
the  field.  My  experience  has  been  that  twenty-four  hours  is  often  long 
enough  to  kill  overflowed  alfalfa." 

Linn  county:  "Alfalfa  which  stands  where  there  is  a  current  most  of 
the  time,  and  the  tops  stick  out  of  the  water,  will  live.  After  the  water 
goes  down  the  tops  may  be  cut  off  and  a  new  crop  of  hay  will  grow. 
Alfalfa  completely  under  water  is  killed.  It  takes  a  complete  submersion 
of  more  than  five  days  to  kill  alfalfa ;  headwaters  which  run  off  in  a  day 
or  two  do  not  hurt  it  much." 

Montgomery  county:    "Flooded  alfalfa  should  be  cut  and  hauled  off." 

IRRIGATED   ALFALFA. 

The  United  States  Census  Bureau  credits  Kansas  with  11,195  acres  of 
irrigated  alfalfa  in  1909.  Of  this  acreage  94.7  per  cent  ,is  irrigated  from 
streams,  5.2  per  cent  from  wells,  and  .1  per  cent  from  springs.  Reports 
to  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  however,  come  mostly  from  growers 
who  irrigate  by  pumping  from  the  underflow ;  some  irrigate  from  streams, 
and  one,  living  in  Morton  county,  irrigates  from  an  artesian  well.  Prac- 
tically all  the  irrigated  alfalfa  in  Kansas  is  located  in  the  western  third 
of  the  state. 

The  average  yield  of  irrigated  alfalfa  in  Kansas  is  5.4  tons  per  acre, 
as  against  3.17  tons  of  nonirrigated  alfalfa  in  the  same  territory — an.  in- 
crease, due  to  irrigation,  of  2.23  tons  per  acre,  or  more  than  70  per  cent. 
The  average  annual  cost  of  irrigation  is  from  two  to  five  dollars  per 
acre. 

The  usual  method  of  preparing  soil  for  irrigated  alfalfa  is  to  plow 
deeply,  harrow,  and  then  level.  Leveling  land  for  Irrigation  is  fully 
covered  on  pages  277  to  279.  There  is  little  difference  in  the  methods  of 
after-culture,  except  that  water  is  applied  to  irrigated  alfalfa  and  is  not 
applied  to  nonirrigated  alfalfa. 

None  of  the  irrigators  reporting,  except  the  one  having  the  artesian 
well,  has  a  reservoir.  The  custom  is  to  conduct  the  water  from  the  pump 
directly  to  the  field  by  means  of  ditches.  All  the  reporters  apply  water 
by  means  of  flooding,  most  of  them  using  the  "check"  method.  From 
two  to  eight  irrigations  are  given  each  year,  averaging  four  or  five. 

The  time  to  irrigate  is  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the 
appearance  of  the  crop,  as  evidenced  by  the  following  reports:  "Ex- 
amine the  ground  and  never  let  it  get  dry,  or  even  begin  to  get  dry. 
Keep  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  ground."  "When  it  is  dry  and  needs 
water  the  leaves  will  start  to  dry  up  and  turn  yellow." 


166 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


16T 


Some  growers  prefer  to  have  the  soil  quite  moist  at  the  time  the  seed 
is  sown,  and  do  not  irrigate  again  until  the  plants  are  two  to  four  inches 
in  height;  others  sow  the  seed  and  irrigate  immediately  afterwards.  On. 
established  stands  the  time  of  applying  water  is  either  just  before  or 
just  after  each  cutting,  or  both,  and  perhaps  early  in  the  spring.  From; 
three  to  five  inches  of  water  are  applied  at  each  irrigation.  A  prominent 
alfalfa  grower  irrigates  as  follows:  "Three  inches  of  water,  early  in 
the  spring,  just  a  few  days  before  we  cut,  and  a  week  or  ten  days  after 
we  cut." 


PlG.  144.    The  yield  of  irrigated  alfalfa  is  70  per  cent  greater  than  that  of 
nonirrigated  alfalfa. 

Here  are  some  opinions  of  growers  in  regard  to  irrigated  alfalfa  as 
compared  with  near-by  dry-land  alfalfa: 

Finney  county:  "The  irrigated  alfalfa  is  always  growing  and  has  ai 
bright  color,  while  the  dry-land  alfalfa  has  a  sallow  appearance." 

Scott  county:   "It  is  so  different  that  there  is  no  comparison." 
Gray  county:   "Without  irrigation  it  is  a  failure;  with  irrigation  it  is- 
a  source  of  wealth." 

Finney  county:  "In  ordinary  seasons  irrigated  alfalfa  will  yield  one- 
third  to  one-half  more  hay  per  acre  than  alfalfa  grown  on  valley  land! 
without  irrigation." 

Scott  county:   "Seventy-five  per  cent  better." 
Wallace  county:   "Double  or  more  in  yield." 

Wallace  county:  "One  acre  of  irrigated  alfalfa  equals  two  of  dry- 
land alfalfa." 

Morton  county:  "We  irrigate  from  an  artesian  well,  and  find  winter 
irrigation  to  be  good.  In  the  summer  we  give  two  irrigations  for  each 
cutting,  which  will  produce  better  crops.  It  is  hard  to  give  alfalfa  too 
much  water  in  this  locality.  It  is  much  better  to  irrigate  just  one  week 
before  cutting,  as  the  ground  will  not  dry  out  like  it  will  if  irrigated  on 


168 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


the  short  stubble.  This  is  important  where  water  is  scarce.  We  have 
baled  and  weighed  as  high  as  4300  pounds  of  alfalfa  from  one  acre  of 
the  first  cutting." 

(See  pages  276  to  287.) 

ALFALFA   IN   ROWS. 

The  subject  of  alfalfa  in  rows  is  covered  on  pages  271  to  275. 

F/V£  OR  ONE  PROFIT  CROPS 


LEGEND: 

f -PROFIT  RRWfCROP  KT  CMRXET  VALUE. 
2-PROHT  FROM  F£SHN&  CROP. 
3-PHOFITFROMfWNURE.. 
4-PROFIT-PREPHRES  LftND  fi»P  OTHES  CRWS. 
-5--PROF/T-INSW1WICE-MOST  SURE  TO  PRODOCE  fl  CHOP. 


HDflK.  tXCERlnEJII  b! 


FIG.  145.    Alfalfa  is  an  all-round  crop. 
[Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station.] 


COSTS  AND   PROFITS. 

The  average  costs  and  profits  in  growing  ONE  ACRE  of  alfalfa,  under 
the  best  methods  of  culture,  compiled  from  reports  of  growers,  are  here- 
with presented: 

TABLE  No.  16.     Cost  of  getting  a  stand. 


Fertilizing  with  barnyard  manure, 

Plowing    

Disking  twice    

Harrowing  three  times , 

Smoothing  or  dragging  once 

Seed 

Sowing     

Total  cost  of  planting 


$3.00 

1.50 

.75 

.75 

.35 

2.00 

.40 


$8.75 


TABLE  No.  17.     Cost  after' field  is  established. 


Share  of  cost  of  planting,  field  living  twelve  years 

Mowing,  four  cuttings 

•Curing  and  storing  in  stack,  shed  or  mow,  four  cuttings 

•Cultivation  once    

Top-dressing  with  barnyard  manure 

Interest  on  value  of  land  @  6  per  cent,  or  rent 

Taxes  on  land 

Share  of  interest,   taxes  and  depreciation  on  machinery  and   equipment,   and 

machinery  sheds    

Share  of  interest,  taxes  and  depreciation  on  hay  sheds  or  barns 


50.73 
1.60 
3.40 

.57 
1.90 
4.20 

.56 

1.26 
.50 


Total  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  hay $14 . 72 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  169 

i 

TABLE  No.  18.     Profit  when  hay  is  fed  on  farm. 

Total  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  hay $1*  • 72 

Value  on  farm  of  3.72  tons  of  hay,  @  $7.57  per  ton 

Net  profit  an  acre  from  hay  fed  on  farm *$13 . 44 

*  To  which  should  be  added  the  value  of  the  manure. 

TABLB  No.  19.     Profit  when  loose  hay  is  sold  from  farm. 

Total  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  hay $14 . 72 

Hauling  from  the  farm 1.85 

Total  cost  of  producing  and  hauling  from  farm $16.57 

Value  of  3.72  tons  of  hay  sold  from  farm,  @  $8  per  ton 29.76 

Net  profit  from  an  acre  of  loose  hay  sold  from  farm .  .  '. $13 . 19 

TABLE  No.  20.     Profit  when  baled  hay  is  sold  from  farm. 

Total  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  hay ; $14.72 

Cost  of  baling 5.22 

Hauling  from  the  farm ....'....., 1 . 85 

Total  cost  an  acre  of  producing,  baling  and  hauling  from  farm $21.79 

Value  of  3.72  tons  of  baled  hay,  @  $9.45 35.15 

Net  profit  from  an  acre  of  baled  hay  sold  from  farm $13.36 

TABLE  No.  21.     Cost  and  profit  when  seed  crop  is  raised. 

Share  of  cost  of  planting '.  .  .  $0.73 

Mowing  two  crops  of  hay  and  one  seed  crop 1.20 

Curing  and  storing  two  crops  of  hay  and  one  seed  crop 2.55 

Threshing  the  seed 2.80 

Bags  and  storing  the  seed .65 

Cultivation  once    . .57 

Top-dressing  with  barnyard  manure , , 1. 90 

Interest  on  value  of  an  acre  of  land  @  6  per  cent,  or  rent 4.20 

Taxes  on  land .56 

Share  of  interest,   taxes  and  depreciation  on  machinery  and   equipment,    and  on 

machinery  sheds    1.26 

Share  of  interest,  taxes  and  depreciation  on  hay  sheds  or  barns .50 

Total  cost  per  acre  of  production  when  seed  crop  is  raised $16.92 

Value  of  tAvo  crops  of  hay,  1.86  tons,   @   $7.57 $14.08 

Value  of  4.2  bushel's  of  seed,   @   $7.75 ' 32 . 55 

Value  of  straw  from  seed  crop,  .93  tons,  @  $3.78 3.51 

Total  value  of  production  when  seed  crop  is  raised $50. 14 

Net  profit  per  acre  when  seed  crop  is  raised , $33 . 22 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  fact  that  these  figures  represent 
an  average  for  the  state  where  the.  best  methods  of  culture,  as  described 
on  other  pages,  are  followed.  Any  one  or  all  of  the  items  are  subject  to 
such  changes  as  may  be  brought  about  by  the  particular  combination  of 
circumstances  and  conditions  prevalent  in  a  given  instance.  For  ex- 
ample: If  a  grower  bale  from  the  windrow  and  ship  at  once  the  charge 
against  curing  and  storing  would  be  greatly  "modified.  If  a  man  grows 
alfalfa  on  100-dollar  land  the  charge  against  interest  and  taxes  on  land 
would  be  twice  as  much  as  it  would  be  on  50-dollar  land.  If  a  man's 
average  yield  were  4.5  tons  the  cost  of  handling  and  the  profit  per  acre 
would  be  quite  different  from  what  they  would  be  if  his  average  yield 
were  2.5  tons.  The  costs  and  profits  of  a  grower  in  Lyon  county  differ 
considerably  from  those  of  a  grower  in  Wallace  county.  Hence  the  esti- 
mates as  shown  above  are  not  arbitrary;  they  serve  merely  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  approximate  average  expense  and  income,  when  the  opera- 


170 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


171 


tions  as  mentioned  are  practiced  and  when  the  yields  and  prices  are  as 
stated. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  except  where  a  seed  crop  is  raised,  the 
net  profit  per  acre  is  greatest  when  the  hay  is  fed  on  the  farm.  A 
peculiarly  happy  circumstance  is  that  an  alfalfa  seed  crop,  the  most 
profitable  crop  of  all,  usually  comes  in  those  dry  years  when  all  other, 
crops  are  at  their  worst.  Baled  alfalfa  hay  brings  a  better  profit  than 
loose  alfalfa  hay,  when  sold.  When  shipped  to  a  distant  market  the 
transportation  charges  and  the  commission  charges  are  usually  offset  by 
a  higher  price. 

GIVING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF   THEMSELVES 

THE  POOD   THEV  PRODUCED  FROM  AN  ACRE, 


I  COULDNY  START  A3\  /NO  USE  TRYING  TO  ^ 
EARLY  A5  ALFALFA  NOR  (I  COMPETE  WITH  ALfAUFA 
WORK  AS  LATE.  AND  HE  HAS  BOGS  TO  HCU> 
THEN  RUST  AND  HOT  II  HIM  AND  WHO  WANTS  TO 
WEATHER  HURT  ME.  )  |  WORK  ALL  THE  TIMC .  / 
ANYWAY.  ^ 


COULPXT  WORK 
AS  EARLY  AND  LATE 
BUT  HERE  IS  WHAT 

PRODUCED 


I  WORKED  EARLY  AND  LATE 
FROM  SPRING,  TO  FREEZE- 
UP    AND    HERE  IS   WHAT 
I   HAVE  BROUGHT   YOU. 


WELL ,  BOYS, 
WHAT  HAVE. 
YOU  DONE 


WHO  WILL  GET  THE  JOB  NEXT  YEAR  ? 


FIG.  147.    Alfalfa  probably  is  Kansas'  most  profitable  crop. 
[Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station.] 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  field  crops  common  to  Kansas  will 
show  a  greater  net  profit  than  alfalfa,  and  few  will  show  so  great  a  net 
profit.  (See -pages  469  to  472.) 


FROM  PERSIA  TO  KANSAS. 

By  H.  J.  WATERS,  President  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

It's  a  long  way  from  Persia  to  Kansas,  nearly  half  way  around  the 
world,  even  as  the  crow  flies.  Yet  this  is  the  distance  alfalfa  traveled 
from  Persia,  the  place  of  its  birth,  to  Kansas,  the  place  of  its  most 
effectual  fruition.  It 's  a  long  time  from  500  B.  c.  to  1869  A.  D.  Yet  this  is 
the  time  that  elapsed  from  the  date  of,  the  earliest  extant  record  of  alfalfa 
to  the  date  of  the  plant's  first  entrance  into  Kansas. 

It  was  in  the  land  of  Media,  a  well-watered,  fertile  and  wealthy  coun- 
try in  what  is  now  northern  Persia,  that  alfalfa  had  its  ancient  home. 
The  first  word  of  the  botanical  name  of  the  plant,  Medica>go  sativa,  is  a 
reminiscence  of  the  ancient  land  of  the  Medes,  of  whom  we  read  so  much 
in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  and  secular  history.  The  word  sativa 
means  cultivated.  In  England,  where  words  live  longer  than  in  the 
United  States,  the  name  "purple  medic,"  suggesting  both  the  origin  and 
the  color  of  the  flower  of  the  plant,  is  commonly  applied  to  alfalfa. 


172  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


PIG.  148.    Media.     The  original  home  of  alfalfa.     A  land  that  was  well-watered  and  rich 
in  vegetation.     Map  of  Asia,  500  B.  C. 


GREECE 

Flo.  149.     Greece.     The  first  step  "in  the  progress  of  alfalfa  toward  Kansas. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


173 


Alfalfa  played  in  its  travels  the  part  of  the  leisurely  tourist,  who 
travels  about  the  world,  stopping  now  here,  now  there,  as  his  health  or 
fancy  may  suggest.  Alfalfa  zigzagged  across  Asia  to  Europe,  into  Africa, 
then  back  to  Europe  again,  and  up  and  down  and  across  North  and  South 
America.  It  tarried  for  centuries  in  some  countries,  such  as  Greece  and 
Spain,  before  proceeding  again  on  its  way.  Occasionally  it  lost  ground 
by  venturing  into  a  region  of  unfriendly  soil  and  climate,  such  as  New 
York,  or  into  a  country,  such  as  Mexico,  where  the  people  did  not  know 
how  to  treat  it.  Sometimes  the  seed  was  carried  by  men,  at  other  times  by 
birds,  while  in  other  cases  the  way  it  made  its  journeys  is  unknown. 


Fie.  150.    Italy.     Where  the  ancient  Roman  horses  and  cattle  were  fed  on  alfalfa. 

The  Medes  were  for  centuries  leaders  in  Asiatic  civilization,  and  they 
carried  alfalfa,  as  they  carried  many  another  discovery,  to  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Persians,  who  at  one  time  were  united  with  them  in  ene  great 
kingdom.  The  place  occupied  by  alfalfa  among  the  ancient  Persians  is 
shown  by  the  name  which  they  gave  to  it — aspect,  which  means  horse 
fodder.  The  plant  was  brought  to  Greece  by  Persian  invaders.  In  some 
manner  it  reached  northern  Africa,  and  from  there  was  introduced  into 
Italy,  where  the  Romans  used  it  extensively. 


174 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Ayricultu 


Greek  and  Roman  writers  on  botany  and  agriculture  testify  to  the  high 
esteem  in  which  alfalfa,  or  Medica,  was  held  in  ancient  civilizations. 

Strabo,  who  died  about  A.D.  25,  says  of  alfalfa:  "The  herb  which 
nourishes  horses  best  we  call  the  Median  herb,  from  its  abounding 
natively  there  [in  Media]."  Several  references  are  made  to  alfalfa  by 
other  Greek  writers.  Pliny,  the  Roman  writer  on  natural  history, 
ascribes  the  original  spread  of  alfalfa  to  the  Persian  wars  carried  on  by 
Darius. 


FIG.  151.    Spain.     Into  which  the  Moors  introduced  alfalfa  in  the  early  Middle  Ages. 

The  Roman  agricultural  writer,  Columella,  who  lived  in  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  says,  in  speaking  of  the  various  kinds  of  fodder : 
"The  best  is  herba  Medica  [our  alfalfa],  because  when  it  is  once  sown  it 
lasts  ten  years;  because  it  can  be  mowed  regularly  four  times  a  year, 
sometimes  even  six  times;  because  it  fertilizes  the  land;  because  all 
emaciated  stock  fatten  on  it;  because  it  is  a  remedy  for  sick  cattle;  be- 
cause a  jugerum  [about  three-fifths  of  an  acre]  suffices  abundantly  for 
three  horses  for  a  whole  year." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


175 


For  the  introduction  of  alfalfa  into  medieval  and  modern  agriculture 
the  Arabs,  or  Moors,  are  largely  responsible.  Their  invasions  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  brought  northern  Africa 
and  Spain  under  their  control. 

Whether  they  knew  alfalfa  originally  in  Arabia,  having  obtained  it 
from  the  Persians,  or  came  into  contact  with  it  for  the  first  time  in 
Africa,  is  not  known.  At  all  events,  the  name  which  they  gave  it, 
alfagfacah,  which  means  the  "best  fodder,"  is  the  name  which  the  Arabs 


FIG.  152.    France  and  Germany.     Into  whose  rich  regions  alfalfa  came  on  its  way 
through  Europe. 

carried  into  Spain  with  the  plant  itself,  and  from  this  name  comes  our 
word  alfalfa.  From  Spain  alfalfa  appears  to  have  reached  France,  and 
from  France  to  have  entered  Germany  in  the  fifteenth  century.  From 
Italy  the  plant  probaUly  also  crept  into  southern  Europe,  under  the  name 
lucerne,  the  origin  of  which  is  uncertain.  Lucerne,  or  some  modification 
of  the  word,  is  the  name  of  alfalfa  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
and  has  come  into  use  in  a  few  localities  in  the  United  States,  as,  for 
example,  in  Utah  and  central  New  York. 


176  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   153.    Mexico.     Where  alfalfa  stopped  on  its  way  to  Chile. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


177 


Fia.  154.    Chile.     Where  the  gold-hunters  on  their  way  to  California  found  alfalfa. 


—7 


178  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  155.    California.     Alfalfa's  first  permanent  residence  in  the  United  States. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


179 


Fia.  156.    Kansas.     Where  alfalfa  has  reached  its  highest  point  of  development. 

From  Spain  alfalfa  was  carried  by  the  Spaniards  to  Mexico  after  the 
conquest,  and  thence  into  South  America.  Gold  seekers,  on  their  way 
around  Cape  Horn  to  California,  brought  it  up  from  Chile  in  the  late 
forties  or  early  fifties  of  the  nineteenth  century.  From  California  its 
spread  was  steadily  eastward.  Although  alfalfa,  under  the  name  of 
lucerne,  had  been  introduced  into  the  eastern  states  from  southern  Europe 
before  its  eastern  emigration  from  California  began,  it  had  never  proved 
a  successful  crop  in  the  east. 

On  its  eastward  way  from  California  alfalfa  finally  reached  Kansas, 
where  it  found  the  conditions  more  suitable,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other 
land  it  had  visited  in  its  more  than  twenty  centuries  of  wandering.  In- 
deed, so  successfully  has  the  plant  been  grown  in  this  state  that  many 
persons  who  have  not  read  history  carefully  have  not  unnaturally  drawn 
the  inference  that  alfalfa  originated  in  Kansas.  (See  "History,"  in 
index.) 


180  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


ALFALFA  VARIETIES,  BREEDING,  SEED,  AND 
INOCULATION. 

By  H.  F.  ROBERTS, 
Professor  of  Botany,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

SPECIES. 

The  group  Mecfacago,  called  botanically  a  genus,  contains  about  sixty 
different  species.  Very  few  of  these  have  any  agricultural  value. 

Medticago  arborea,  the  Cytisus  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  is  a  good-sized 
woody  shrub,  growing  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  much  valued 
there  as  a  feed  for  browsing  animals.  It  is  not  hardy  in  the  northern 
United  States,  is  slow  growing  and  woody,  and  therefore  inferior  to 
alfalfa.  However,  the  fact  that  it  grows  in  a  region  of  little  rainfall 
may  make  it  useful  in  crossing  to  produce  more  drouth-resistant  alfalfas. 

Medicago  falcata,  or  Sickle  alfalfa,  is  distributed  widely  over  eastern 
Europe  and  Asia,  from  the  western  Siberian  border  east  into  Chinese  ter- 
ritory, a  distance  of  about  4000  miles,  but  occurs  especially  abundantly  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  eastern  half  of  Siberia,  in  the  provinces  of 
Tomsk  and  Irkutsk.  Here  the  character  of  the  country  resembles  that  of 
the  northwestern  prairie  region  of  the  United  States.  In  this  part  of 
Siberia  the  Sickle  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  characteristic  and  dominant  wild 
plants  of  the  open  range,  and  is  cut  by  the  peasants  for  wild  hay. 

According  to  Hansen,  the  plants  of  Sickle  alfalfa,  growing  wild 
in  Siberia,  grow  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  in  height,  and  he 
mentions  the  fact  of  finding  plants  on  the  banks  of  the  Irtisk  river,  in 
western  Siberia,  the  stems  of  which  were  five  feet  eight  inches  in  length. 
None  of  the  Sickle  alfalfas  received  from  Hansen,  and  in  cultivation 
at  the  Kansas  station,  reach  the  height  of  ordinary  alfalfa. 

Hansen  says  further  regarding  the  distribution  of  this  plant:* 

"It  extends  throughout  a  large  part  of  western  Europe,  central  and 
southern  Russia,  the  Crimea,  the  Caucasus,  and  through  approximately 
the  western  two-thirds  of  Siberia,  at  least  as  far  as  64°  north  latitude, 
through  north  China,  the  Trans-Caspian  regions,  including  Turkestan  and 
Persia,  and  through  Afghanistan,  western  India,  and  Asia  Minor." 

At  the  Russian  Experiment  Station  of  Besentsug,  situated  about  thirty 
miles  east  of  Samara,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Russia  proper — a  typical 
semiarid  high-plains  region — the  Sickle  alfalfa  grows  wild,  is  perfectly 
hardy  and  drouth-resistant,  and  endures  pasturing  for  ten  years.  The 
(general  information  gathered  by  Hansen  would  indicate  that  Sickle  al- 
falfa is  a  desirable  plant  for  pasture  lands  in  western  Kansas  and  for 
breeding  drouth-resistant  and  hardy  alfalfas.  The  plants  of  Sickle  al- 
falfa at  the  Kansas  station  are,  for  the  most  part,  low  and  spreading, 
although  some  of  them  have  a  more  upright  habit.  All  Sickle  alfalfa 
plants  have  finer  foliage  than  cultivated  alfalfa,  and  all  have  yellow 
flowers  and  more  or  less  sickle-shaped  pods,  whence  the  name  of  Sickle 
alfalfa. 

*  Bull.  141,  South  Dakota  Ex.  Sta.,  p.  140. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  181 

The  lighter  yield  of  forage  and  seed,  as  compared  with  common  alfalfa, 
will  not  make  Medicago  falcata  desirable  where  ordinary  alfalfa  can  be 
grown  successfully,  but  in  view  of  the  fact,  as  Hansen  says,  that  it  "en- 
dures very  severe  summer  drouths,  stands  dry  upland  soils  underlaid  with 
hardpan,  and  is  considered  resistant  to  alkali,"  there  is  every  reason  for 
introducing  it  into  Kansas  for  growing  under  special  conditions  and  for 
breeding  purposes.  The  department  of  botany  and  plant  breeding  is 
making  extensive  use  of  the  plant  in  breeding  operations.  Many  hybrids 
have  been  made  this  season  between  the  more  upright-growing  plants  of 
Sickle  alfalfa  and  a  superior  selection  of  pure-bred  Kansas  alfalfa. 

Medicago  media.  This  plant  is  supposed  to  be  a  natural  hybrid  be- 
tween the  common  and  the  Sickle  alfalfas.  It  is  found  wild  most  com- 
monly where  the  boundaries  of  these  two  species  overlap  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  hybrid,  furthermore,  grows  farther  north  than  common  al- 
falfa, in  which  respect  it  shares  the  characteristics  of  the  Sickle  alfalfa. 
The  plants  of  Medicago  media  show  considerable  variation.  This  is  most 
striking  in  the  case  of  the  flowers,  which  vary  from  pale  yellow  to  green- 
ish yellow  and  greenish  purple,  for  which  reason  the  name  Variegated 
alfalfa,  proposed  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has 
come  into  use.  The  seed  pods  are  spiral,  but  they  are  not  so  closely 
coiled  as  in  the  case  of  alfalfa.  Medicago  media  is  often  called  Sand 
alfalfa,  because  it  has  been  found  growing  in  Germany  in  sandy  soil,  and 
has  been  recommended,  therefore,  for  sandy  regions.  It  is,  however, 
doubtful  whether  much  of  the  alfalfa  seed  sold  as  Sand  alfalfa  is  really 
anything  but  common  alfalfa  seed  from  plants  grown  on  sandy  ground. 

The  fact  that  Variegated  alfalfa,  will  grow  farther  north  than  common 
alfalfa  is  due  to  the  circumstance  of  its  being  a  hybrid  of  common  alfalfa 
with  the  hardier  Sickle  alfalfa. 

Medicago  ruthenica.  This  is  a  species  of  alfalfa  found  growing  wild, 
from  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Baikal,  in  eastern  Siberia,  to  the  Pacific 
ocean,  and  in  Siberia  as  far  south  as  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Korea,  and 
northern  China.  The  plants  are  low  and  spreading,  with  small,  narrow 
leaves,  yellow  flowers,  and  flat,  oval  pods,  tapering  toward  both  ends,  and 
not  containing  over  four  seeds,  as  a  rule.  The  forage  value  of  this 
species  is  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  common  alfalfa,  but  it  will 
undoubtedly  be  of  some  use  for  pastures  in  dry  regions.  Perhaps  its 
chief  value  will  be  for  crossing  with  Medicago  sativa,  to  produce  hardier 
alfalfas. 

VARIETIES. 

This  concludes  our  discussion  of  the  species  of  alfalfa  that  give  most 
promise  to  agriculture.  We  have  next  to  consider  the  so-called  "varieties" 
of  the  species  Medicago  sativa,  or  ordinary  alfalfa,  that  have  come  into 
prominence. 

Common  alfalfa  has  well  been  called  "the  most  important  forage  plant 
in  the  world,"  by  reason  of  the  very  great  series  of  variations  it  pos- 
sesses, which  make  it  adaptable  to  such  a  wide  range  of  climates.  The 
fundamental  essential  needs  of  all  alfalfa  varieties  are  four,  viz.,  (1)  a 
rich  soil,  (2)  a  well-drained  soil,  (3)  a  soil  free  from  acidity,  (4)  a  porous 
subsoil. 


182 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


No  variety  of  alfalfa  known  will  be  entirely  successful  anywhere  if 
one  of  these  essential  characteristics  is  lacking  to  the  soil.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  when  we  come  to  consider  variations  in  climate,  we  find  the 
world-wide  adaptability  of  alfalfa  to  be  most  striking.  When  we  speak 
about  varieties  of  alfalfa,  however,  we  must  remember  that  generally 
the  name  of  a  "variety" — so-called — of  alfalfa  is  really  the  name  of  the 
region  where  it  originated  or  from  whence  it  has  been  brought.  Hence, 
we  prefer  at  present  to  speak  of  "regional  varieties."  This  is  illustrated 
by  the  names  Arabian,  Peruvian,  Chilean,  Turkestan,  etc.,  which  are 
very  indefinite  as  variety  names,  but  which  simply  refer  to  the  country 
from  which  the  given  strain  of  alfalfa  has  been  imported.  Oftentimes,  as 
is  the  case  of  alfalfa  from  Turkestan,  where  different  importations  of 
seed  have  been  made  from  different  parts  of  this  wide  territory,  which 
is  two-fifths  as  large  as  the  United  States,  it  is  plain  that  there  are 
several  varieties,  types  or  strains  lumped  together  under  the  name  of 
Turkestan.  In  fact,  the  number  of  different  pure  strains  of  different 


FIG   157    Two  types  of  common  alfalfa,  having  broad  and  narrow  leaves,  respectively. 
There  are  many  variations  of  this  kind  in  every  alfalfa  field. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  183 

value  that  may  be  gotten  out  of  any  regional  variety,  by  saving  the  seed 
separately  from  different  selected  mother  plants,  is  always  very  large. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  a  thorough  study  of  the  alfalfas  of  the  world  from 
the  strictly  botanical  and  scientific  standpoint  has  yet  to  be  made. 

For  practical  purposes,  however,  we  may  say  that  where  alfalfa  has 
been  grown  for  a  long  time  in  any  region  the  plants  unfitted  to  survive 
there  are  gradually  sifted  out  by  Nature,  and  we  finally  come  to  have 
a  tolerably  uniform  type  in  each  region  as  long  as  it  is  kept  growing  there. 
When  it  is  moved  elsewhere  and  exposed  to  different  climatic  conditions, 
Nature  begins  a  new  process  of  sifting,  and  perhaps  does  not  sift  out 
the  same  kinds  of  plants  as  before.  This  is  what  happens,  for  example, 
when  Arabian  or  Peruvian  alfalfa,  which  is  adapted  to  a  warm  region, 
is  grown  in  the  colder  parts  of  North  America. 

If  we  follow  alfalfa  in  its  historic  westward  course  from  Persia  to 
Arabia,  Egypt,  Northern  Africa,  Spain,  France  and  Germany,  and  fron 
Spain  across  the  ocean  to  Mexico,  Peru  and  Chile;  if  we  follow  its  other 
track  into  Asia  Minor,  Greece  and  Italy;  or  if  we  trace  its  eastern  trail  up 
into  Turkestan  or  Siberia,  and  down  into  India;  and  if  we  visit  any  of  the 
stopping  places  on  this  extensive  pilgrimage,  where  anything  like  settled 
and  permanent  agricultural  conditions  prevail,  we  shall  find  characteristic 
types  of  alfalfa  growing  in  each  region,  each  having  its  own  peculiarities, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  Nature's  subtle  sieve  has  sifted  out  the  plants  un- 
adapted  to  the  region  in  question,  and  has  left  the  rest  to  propagate. 
Through  the  efforts  of  the  agricultural  explorers  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  especially,  many  importations  of  alfalfa  seed 
have  been  made  for  trial  from  all  the  principal  alfalfa-growing  regions 
of  the  earth.  Following  are  a  few  of  the  principal  regional  varieties 
that  have  been  introduced,  and  that  have  proved  to  be  of  agricultural 
value  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States :  Turkestan,  Grimm  or  Old 
Franconian,  Arabian,  Peruvian,  and  Chilean. 

Turkestan  Alfalfa. 

Turkestan  alfalfa  was  first  introduced  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  1898.  The  seeds  individually  are  indistinguish- 
able from  those  of  common  alfalfa,  but  the  bulk  seed  has  a  duller,  rather 
dusty  appearance,  instead  of  the  bright  yellow  color  of  common  alfalfa 
seed.  The  plants  so  closely  resemble  ordinary  alfalfa  that  it  is  practic- 
ally impossible  to  say  whether  any  given  plant  is  Turkestan  alfalfa  or 
not.  The  chief  value  of  Turkestan  alfalfa  lies  in  its  resistance  to  drouth. 
In  respect  to  yield  it  is  generally  inferior  to  common  alfalfa.  In  the 
matter  of  winter  hardiness  the  strains  of  alfalfa  introduced  from  the 
different  parts  of  Turkestan  vary  exceedingly,  owing  to  the  wide  range 
of  differences  in  climate  existing  in  the  different  parts  of  this  large 
territory.  Some  of  the  Turkestan  strains  have  poor  seeding  habits,  and 
the  habit  of  making  an  early  spring  growth,  and  of  going  into  a  dormant 
condition  early  in  the  fall.  The  early  spring  growth  is  apt  to  be  caught 
by  spring  frosts,  and  a  late  fall  cutting  is  lost  by  early  dormancy. 

Grimm  Alfalfa. 

In  1857  Wendelin  Grimm  came  to  America  from  his  home  in  Kulsheim, 
in  the  province  of  Baden,  in  southwestern  Germany,  bringing  with  him 
a  fifteen-  or  twenty-pound  packet  of  alfalfa  or  "lucerne"  seed  of  the 
variety  generally  grown  around  his  home,  and  known  as  the  "Old  Ger- 


184  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

man"  or  "Old  German  Frankish"  lucerne.  This  alfalfa,  planted  in  the 
spring  of  1858,  has  undergone  gradual  acclimatization  until  it  is  now 
the  recognized  type  of  alfalfa  for  the  extreme  northern  United  States. 
Common  alfalfa  from  Utah,  Kansas  and  California,  and  from  many 
other  sources,  has  been  tested  in  Minnesota,  but  with  the  solitary  ex- 
ception of  the  Grimm,  none  has  stood  the  test  of  the  cold  of  Minnesota. 
The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  had  its  attention  attracted 
to  the  hardy  Grimm  alfalfa  in  1904,  and  extensive  experiments  conducted 
since  that  time  show  conclusively  that  Grimm  is  thus  far  the  most  winter- 
hardy  strain  of  alfalfa  known.  At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 
farm  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  in  1907,  seven  different  lots  of  Grimm  alfalfa 
showed  percentages  of  loss  from  winterkilling  varying  from  0  to  11  per 
cent,  with  an  average  of  4.2  per  cent.  For  the  same  period,  three  strains 
of  ordinary  alfalfa  from  Utah  and  Montana  showed  an  average  of  84.5 
per  cent  of  loss  due  to  winterkilling.  At  Dickinson,  N.  Dak.,  in  the  winter 
of  1908-'09,  there  were  68  strains  of  alfalfa  under  experiment  from  all 
the  chief  alfalfa-growing  regions  of  the  world.  The  average  loss  of  the 
Grimm  alfalfa  was  under  5  per  cent,  while  the  average  for  the  whole 
experiment  was  78  per  cent  of  loss — twelve  strains  out  of  the  sixty- 
eight  winterkilling  100  per  cent.  These  experiments  show  graphically  the 
superiority  of  Grimm  alfalfa  in  respect  to  winter  hardiness. 

Arabian  Alfalfa. 

This  type  of  alfalfa  was  introduced  from  Bassorah  and  Bagdad  in 
Arabia  by  the  Lathrop  and  Fairchild  Expedition  in  1902,  and  through 
a  later  importation  in  1905.  This  alfalfa  comes  from  a  region  of  ex- 
ceedingly hot  summers  and  mild  winters,  where  it  has  been  growing 
since,  perhaps,  prehistoric  times.  It  has  a  longer  growing  season  than 
common  alfalfa.  In  rapidity  of  growth  it  lies  between  common  and 
Peruvian  alfalfa.  The  leaflets  are  broad  in  proportion  to  their  length, 
while  those  of  Peruvian  alfalfa  are  long.  The  Arabian  alfalfa  is  short- 
lived, its  period  of  profitable  growth  being  about  five  years.  In  Cali- 
fornia it  is  considered  desirable  to  plant  Arabian  alfalfa  in  young 
orchards,  since  it  dies  out  by  the  time  the  trees  come  into  bearing.  It  is 
more  productive  than  ordinary  alfalfa  and  a  more  vigorous  grower, 
with  a  more  upright  habit,  but  it  winterkills  badly  in  Kansas,  and  com- 
pletely in  such  northern  states  as  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota. 

Peruvian  Alfalfa. 

In  1903  seed  of  the  native  Peruvian  alfalfa  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  from  Limache,  Peru.  The  exact  lo- 
cality in  Peru  from  which  the  seed  came  is  not  recorded,  but  it  appears 
to  be  a  type  of  alfalfa  that  had  become  acclimatized  to  high  altitudes. 
Alfalfa  was,  of  course,  introduced  into  Peru  by  the  Spaniards  after  the 
conquest,  and  the  alfalfa  that  they  brought  was  adapted  to  a  hot,  dry 
climate.  Nevertheless,  the  Peruvian  alfalfa  in  question,  while  it  will 
not  generally  winter  over  in  Kansas,  or  at  all  in  any  more  northern  state, 
is  capable  of  growing  in  cooler  weather  than  any  other  alfalfa  we  have. 
It  commences  its  growth  earlier  in  the  spring  and  continues  growing 
later  in  the  fall  than  any  other  sort.  For  this  reason  it  has  great  value 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  185 

for  Arizona  and  the  southwest,  where  it  grows  through  the  winter  months, 
which  have  a  mean  temperature  of  a  little  above  50°  F.  Here  we  have  the 
strange  fact  that  a  plant  which  will  not  survive  cold  winters  will  grow  in 
a  climate  with  mild  but  cool  winters — so  cool  as  to  check  growth  entirely 
in  other  varieties  of  alfalfa.  The  Peruvian  alfalfa  is  hairy,  like  the 
Arabian,  has  taller  and  more  succulent  stems  than  common  alfalfa,  and 
is  more  productive. 

The  leaflets  are  long,  and  the  leaves  frequently  have  four  and  five 
leaflets,  instead  of  the  three  of  ordinary  alfalfa. 

Chilean  Alfalfa. 

This  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  our  alfalfa  commonly  grown  in  the 
United  States,  the  seed  of  which  was  originally  brought  from  Chile,  in 
the  early  fifties  of  the  last  century,  by  gold  seekers  who  sailed  around 
Cape  Horn  to  California,  and  which  has  spread  from  California  eastward 
across  the  country.  This  type  of  alfalfa  is  the  kind  commonly  grown  in 
Kansas,  and  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  this  alfalfa  is  by  no  means  of  a  uniform  type,  but  that  differences 
in  yield,  winter-hardiness  and  drouth-resistance  exist,  which  are  made 
use  of  by  the  breeder.  It  is  generally  known,  for  example,  that  northern- 
grown  alfalfa  seed,  where  the  seed  comes  from  an  old  stand  of  northern- 
grown  alfalfa,  produces  plants  that  are  hardier  than  those  which  come 
from  the  southern-grown  seed.  (See  "Varieties,"  in  index.) 

ALFALFA  BREEDING. 

Generally  speaking,  five  principal  results  are  to  be  sought  for  in  alfalfa 
breeding,  viz:  (1)  winter-hardiness,  (2)  resistance  to  drouth,  (3)  in- 
creased forage  yield,  (4)  increased  seeding  capacity,  (5)  immunity  from 
disease.  These  ends,  of  course,  are  not  all  to  be  sought  for  to  the  same 
degree  in  all  regions.  For  the  most  part  the  different  strains  of  the 
ordinary  American  alfalfa,  which,  from  its  origin,  we  have  called  Chilean, 
is  capable  of  adaptation  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  except  the  most 
northern  portions. 

Breeding  for  Winter-Hardiness. 

North  of  central  Nebraska  the  ordinary  American  or  Chilean  alfalfa 
tends  to  winterkill  more  or  less  completely,  and  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
the  only  alfalfa  that  has  proven  absolutely  hardy  in  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas  is  the  Grimm  variety.  Peruvian  alfalfa  is  the  variety  best 
adapted  to  the  hot,  irrigated  lands  of  the  Southwest,  but  it  usually  winter- 
kills even  as  far  north  as  Kansas.  In  the  semiarid  West  generally,  where 
alfalfa  is  grown  without  irrigation,  and  under  limited  rainfall,  Turkestan 
has  given  good  results. 

In  breeding  alfalfa  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  select,  as  a  founda- 
tion stock,  a  "regional  variety"  of  alfalfa  that  carries  some  of  the 
characteristics  desired.  For  example,  in  the  preliminary  experiments  in 
breeding  alfalfa  for  North  Dakota,  experiments  were  made  with  sixty- 
eight  such  varieties  of  alfalfa,  which  were  grown  in  drill  and  in  hill 
rows  at  Dickinson,  N.  Dak. 

The  effects  of  the  winter  of  1908-'09  upon  these  different  varieties  were 
very  striking.  All  of  the  alfalfa  strains  imported  from  Arabia,  the 


186  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

north  coast  of  Africa,  Spain,  southern  France,  South  America,  and  even 
dry-land  alfalfa  from  Utah,  and  several  lots  from  Turkestan,  winter- 
killed from  90  to  100  per  cent.  A  number  of  alfalfas  from  Mexico,  France, 
Germany  and  Turkestan,  and  from  Utah,  Montana,  Colorado  and  Kansas 
winterkilled  from  80  to  90  per  cent.  Without  giving  further  details,  it 
may  be  said,  briefly,  that  the  only  alfalfa  strain  out  of  the  sixty-eight  in 
which  practically  no  winterkilling  whatever  occurred  was  Grimm.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  interesting  to  note  that  of  the  twelve  strains  from  Turke- 
stan one  winterkilled  as  little  as  9  per  cent,  while  another  winterkilled 
100  per  cent,  the  rest  being  distributed  all  the  way  between  these  two 
extremes. 

This  example  shows  graphically  the  mistake  of  assuming  that  all  alfalfa 
from  a  given  country  is  necessarily  alike,  especially  when  that  country  is 
very  large  and  has  a  considerable  range  of  differences  in  climate.  As 
Brand  and  Waldron  say,  "When  one  considers  that  Turkestan  has  an 
area  almost  as  great  as  that  part  of  the  United  States  lying  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  a  climate  that  ranges  from  as  cold  as  Montana  to  as  hot 
as  Arizona,  this  range  in  hardiness  of  commercial  samples  of  seed  is  not 
surprising."  (Bull.  185,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.) 

On  the  basis  of  the  results  obtained  by  such  a  winter's  test  the  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station  was  able  to  lay  an  intelligent  foundation  for 
the  breeding  of  hardy  alfalfas. 

It  is  plain  that  but  for  the  accidental  importation  of  Grimm  alfalfa, 
and  of  one  or  two  of  the  strains  from  Turkestan,  alfalfa  growing  in 
Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  would  be  doomed  to  failure,  since  none  of  the 
other  alfalfas  from  East  Asia,  Africa,  South  America  or  the  United 
States  has  proved  sufficiently  hardy  for  that  rigorous  climate.  Several 
trips  have  been  made  to  Russia,  Siberia  and  Turkestan  by  Prof.  N.  E. 
Hansen,  of  the  South  Dakota  State  College  of  Agriculture,  as  explorer 
for  the  United  States  government.  As  a  result  we  now  have  numerous 
alfalfas  which,  while  not  all  of  them  are  completely  hardy  in  the  extreme 
northwest,  have  shown  that  they  contain  material  out  of  which  hardier 
alfalfas  may  be  produced  by  selection,  after  acclimatization  tests. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  work  in  alfalfa  breeding  has  probably  gone  far 
enough  for  definite  statements  to  be  made  regarding  some  of  the  real 
underlying  reasons  for  both  winter-hardiness  and  drouth-resistance. 
From  the  experiments  in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  as  we  have  seen,  a 
practical  demonstration  has  been  furnished  of  the  fact  that  certain 
strains  of  alfalfa  will  survive  the  intensely  cold  winters  of  the  north  with 
little  or  no  injury.  The  winter  conditions  which  kill  alfalfa  are,  how- 
ever, not  all  of  one  kind.  A  moist  fall,  which  prevents  the  plants  from 
becoming  dormant,  is  conducive  to  winterkilling,  whereas  a  dry  fall,  fol- 
lowed by  a  winter  of  the  same  intensity,  will  result  in  a  much  lower 
mortality.  A  winter  of  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  resulting  in  heav- 
ing of  the  soil,  will  destroy  many  alfalfa  plants,  through  the  breaking  up 
of  the  root  system.  The  tissues  of  the  plants  may  themselves  also  be  killed 
by  successive  thawings  and  freezings,  just  as  the  tissues  of  the  buds  of 
peach  trees  are  often  killed  in  our  climate.  Winterkilling  also  occurs  ex- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  187 

tensively  where  an  ice  sheet  forms  over  the  fields.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
very  severe  winter,  in  the  sense  that  there  is  a  long  period  of  extremely 
low  temperature,  may  result  in  little  winterkilling  of  alfalfa,  if  the  fall  is 
dry  and  if  the  ground  is  continuously  under  a  deep  cover  of  snow.  It  is 
therefore  plain  that  to  be  absolutely  winter-hardy  under  all  kinds  of 
winter  conditions,  alfalfa  will  have  to  have  quite  a  combination  of  char- 
acteristics. 

Thus  far,  the  Grimm  alfalfa,  certain  Turkestan  strains,  and  a  strain 
of  common  alfalfa  found  growing  near  the  village  of  Baltic,  S.  Dak.,  by 
Professor  Wheeler  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  that  state,  and  called 
Baltic  alfalfa,  all  stand  preeminent  in  respect  to  resistance  to  winter- 
killing. Now  Blinn,  of  the  Colorado  experiment  station,  has  found  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  winter-hardy  types  of  alfalfa,  the  plants  stool  earlier 
in  life  than  the  nonhardy  forms,  and  stool  more  extensively,  forming 
extensive  underground  stems  or  root  stocks,  loaded  with  buds.  These 
root  stocks,  being  underneath  the  soil,  are  thus  protected  by  the  soil  cover- 
ing from  extreme  exposures.  With  this  extensively  stooling  crown,  and 
this  mass  of  underground  buds,  Grimm  alfalfa,  for  example,  is  enabled 
to  go  through  winters  that  kill  alfalfas  of  our  common  Kansas  type, 
with  their  upright  crowns  and  without  protected  buds.  Furthermore, 
there  is  a  tendency  among  the  hardier  types  of  alfalfa  to  have  a 
branched  root  system  instead  of  a  single  tap  root.  The  Baltic  strain  of 
alfalfa  shows  this  characteristic  in  a  high  degree.  It  is  also  true  that, 
while  drouth-resistant  alfalfa  strains  may  not  be  cold-resistant,  the 
winter-hardy  types  are,  generally  speaking,  drouth-resistant.  The  un- 
derground stems,  bearing  buds,  and  the  branched  root  system,  charac- 
teristic of  the  winter-hardy  alfalfas — Grimm,  Baltic,  and  certain  alfalfas 
from  Turkestan — are  also  characteristics  which  help  the  plants  in  ques- 
tion to  live  over  dry  seasons. 

Finally,  there  is  a  difference  among  the  alfalfa  plants  of  almost  any 
hardy  strain  with  respect  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  foliage  to  frost  in- 
jury. Side  by  side,  plants  of  the  same  so-called  "variety"  will  show  the 
greatest  differences  in  this  regard.  Blinn,  of  the  Colorado  Experiment 
Station,  thinks  that  the  darker  green  plants  are  less  susceptible  to  frost 
injury  than  are  those  with  light-green  leaves.  We  may  then  sum  up  the 
steps  thus  far  achieved  in  the  work  of  breeding  for  winter-hardiness  in 
alfalfa  as  follows: 
A.  The  introduction  of  hardy  foundation  stocks.  Four  important 

foundation  stocks  lie  at  the  basis  of  breeding  for  cold-resistance 

in  America,  viz.: 

1.  The  Grimm  importation  in  1858  of  a  strain  of  the  "Old  Ger- 

man Franconian"  alfalfa  from  Baden,  Germany. 

2.  Various  Turkestan  importations,  and — 

3.  The  introduction   of  Medicago  falcata,  or   Sickle   alfalfa,  by 

Prof.  N.  E.  Hansen,  of  the  South  Dakota  College  of  'Agri- 
culture. 

4.  The  discovery,  near  the  village  of  Baltic,  S.  Dak.,  of  a  hardy 

strain  of  common  alfalfa  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Wheeler,  of  the 
South  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  which  has  been  named 
"Baltic  alfalfa." 


188 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


B.  The  discovery  by  Mr.  P.  K.  Blinn,  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, of  the  fact  that  all  winter -hardy  types  of  alfalfa,  from  what- 
ever source,  are  alike  in  producing  underground  stems  with  buds, 
which  are  protected  by  the  soil  from  injury;  that  the  winter- 
hardy  plants  stool  earlier  in  life  than  the  nonhardy  types,  and 
tend  to  have  «a  highly  branched  root  system,  instead  of  a  single 
tap  root. 


FIG.  158.  Common  American  or 
Chilean  alfalfa.  Pedigree  No.  92,  an 
exceedingly  upright  type,  produced  on 
the  plant-breeding  grounds  of  the  De- 
partment of  Botany,  Kansas  State  Ag- 
ricultural College.  Crown  and  root 
system  have  more  branches  than  Peru- 
vian alfalfa. 


FIG.  159.  Peruvian  alfalfa. 
This  alfalfa  is  closely  related  to 
the  American  or  Chilean  type, 
commonly  grown  in  this  coun- 
try. It  will,  however,  grow 
and  make  a  crop  in  cooler 
weather.  It  is  not  winter- 
hardy  in  the  north,  or  even  in 
Kansas,  with  any  certainty. 
Note  the  single  tap  root,  asso- 
ciated with  tender  types  of 
alfalfa. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


189 


FIG.  160.  Sickle  alfalfa  (Medidago  fal- 
cata).  A  cold-  and  drouth-resistant  type  of 
alfalfa  native  to  eastern  and  central  Asia. 
This  alfalfa  has  a  branching  crown,  and  a 
branching  root  system,  instead  of  a  single 
tap  root.  It  also  has  horizontal  propa- 
gating stems  (rhizomes,  "r,  r"),  which 
grow  at  some  depth  underground,  and 
help  the  plant  to  survive  unfavorable  con- 
ditions. 


FIG.  161.  Grimm  alfalfa.  This  alfalfa  is 
probably  the  result  of  a  cross  between  or- 
dinary alfalfa  and  Sickle  alfalfa.  It  has 
the  hardiness  of  the  latter.  Note  the  richly 
branching  crown  and  root  system,  like  that 
of  the  Sickle  alfalfa.  This  type  of  root  sys- 
tem in  alfalfa  has  been  found  to  go  with 
winter  and  drouth  hardiness. 


By  means  of  Grimm,  Baltic,  and  one  or  two  Turkestan  strains,  alfalfa 
has  thus  been  brought  to  the  cold  northwestern  states,  where  alfalfa 
growing  had  hitherto  been,  and  would  otherwise  remain,  a  failure.  It 
should  be  added  that  the  introduction  of  the  yellow-flowered  alfalfas, 
Medicago  falcata  and  Medicago  ruthenica,  found  by  Professor  Hansen 
growing  wild  on  the  cold,  dry  steppes  of  Siberia,  may  result  in  carrying 
alfalfa  growing,  as  Professor  Hansen  suggests,  up  to  the  arctic  circle. 
These  extremely  hardy  alfalfas  do  not  seem  to  be  so  productive  as  com- 
mon alfalfa,  but  it  is  likely  that  no  strain  of  Medicago  saliva  will  ever 
grow  as  far  north  as  some  of  the  strains  of  Sickle  alfalfa. 

Breeding  for  Drouth-resistance. 

As  already  stated,  the  alfalfas  which  show  cold-resistance  in  a  marked 
degree  are  also  adapted  to  resist  drouth.  In  general,  however,  the  Turk- 
estan strains,  which  are  not  all  winter-hardy,  are  yet  very  drouth-re- 
sistant. One  of  the  difficulties  in  breeding  for  drouth-resistance  in  alfalfa 
is  the  fact  that  the  alfalfa  tops  do  not  lie  dormant  during  a  scarcity  in 
the  water  supply,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sorghums,  but  wilt,  and  new 
shoots  start  from  the  crown.  The  deep-rooting  habits  of  alfalfa,  and  the 
branching-root  habits  of  some  strains,  as  mentioned  above,  give  alfalfa 


190  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

a  greater  volume  of  soil  from  which  to  draw  water  than  other  crops  have. 
Alfalfa  makes  heavy  drafts  upon  the  soil  for  water.  The  experiments 
of  Briggs  and  Shantz,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,* 
to  determine  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  taken  from  the  soil  by  crops, 
for  the  production  of  a  pound  of  dry  matter,  are  very  instructive.  The 
following  data  are  given  for  alfalfa: 

TABLE  No.  22.     Amount  of  water  used  by  different  varieties  of  alfalfa. 


Variety. 

Number  of  years  tested. 

Pounds  of  water  required  per 
pound  of  dry  matter  produced. 

Grimm: 
Average  of  two  strains  

2 

903 

Peruvian                   .            ... 

1 

651 

Sickle  alfalfa  

865 

In  comparison  with  alfalfa,  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  amounts  of 
water  used  by  some  other  common  plants  in  making  a  pound  of  dry 
matter : 

TABLE  No.  23.     Amount  of  water  used  by  different  kinds  of  plants. 

Plant.  Pounds. 

Sunflower 705 

Potato 636 

Watermelon 600 

Oats 597 

Barley 534 

Wheat 513 

Corn 368 

Sorghums,  all  kinds  (av.) 322 

Millet 310 

These  experiments  simply  record  the  amounts  of  water  that  pass  from 
the  ground  into  the  air  through  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  plants  ex- 
perimented with,  and  the  ratio,  in  pounds,  of  this  water  to  the  number 
of  pounds  of  dry  matter  produced  by  the  plants. 

In  a  rough  way,  these  results  measure  drouth-resistance,  in  that  they 
show  that  some  plants  are  more  economical  crop  producers  than  others, 
so  far  as  the  amount  of  water  drawn  from  the  soil  is  concerned.  Alfalfa, 
it  is  seen,  takes  nearly  twice  as  much  water  out  of  the  ground  as  wheat, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  dry  matter  made,  and  there 
are  evidently  differences  among  the  alfalfas  themselves  in  this  respect. 
From  the  tests  thus  far  made,  Peruvian  seems  to  be  more  economical 
than  Grimm,  or  even  Sickle  alfalfa. 

For  the  purpose  of  the  breeder,  many  more  such  experiments  with 
a  wide  range  of  strains  and  varieties  of  alfalfa  will  be  necessary  before 
he  can  come  to  definite  conclusions  as  to  the  most  economical  strain  of 
alfalfa  from  the  water  standpoint. 

Strictly  speaking,  alfalfa  is  not  a  dry-land  crop  in  the  sense  that 
Sudan  grass  is,  for  example,  and  present  prospects  do  not  afford  much 
hope  that  it  can  be  made  into  one.  Alfalfa  plants  do  not  cease  growing 

*  "Relative  Water  Requirement  of  Plants,"  by  Briggs  and  Shantz,  Journal  of  Agricul- 
tural Research,  vol.  3,  No.  1,  Oct.  15,  1914. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


191 


during  a  drouth,  as  do  the  sorghums.  Their  tops  wilt,  and  new  shoots 
start  immediately  from  the  crown.  The  only  improvement  thus  far  made 
in  getting  more  drouth-resistant  alfalfas  seems  to  be  in  the  introduction 
of  the  Turkestan  strains  and  the  Sickle  alfalfas  from  the  dry  steppes  of 
Siberia.  Among  the  experiments  along  this  line  are  those  of  Dillman,  at 
the  Bellefourche  Experiment  Station  in  western  South  Dakota. 

In  1909  nineteen  pure  strains  of  Grimm  and  twelve  of  Turkestan  were 
grown  at  Bellefourche,  in  rows,  under  strictly  dry-land  conditions.  It 
was  found  that  the  average  yield  of  dried  hay  per  plant  was  different  in 
the  different  strains.  The  nineteen  strains  of  Grimm  showed  a  variation 
in  this  respect  ranging  from  an  average  of  4.8  ounces  of  dried  hay  per 
plant  in  the  lowest-yielding  row  to  6.8  ounces  in  the  highest.  In  the 
Turkestan  plots  the  range  was  almost  exactly  the  same,  but  the  average 


FIG.  162.   Type  of  common  alfalfa,  with  sprawling  branches  sparsely  set  with  leaves. 

for  the  Grimm  plots  was  slightly  higher  than  for  the  Turkestan,  being 
at  the  rate  of  5.7  ounces  per  plant  as  against  5.3  ounces  for  the  latter. 

There  is  need  of  a  very  much  wider  range  of  dry-land  experiments  of 
this  nature  with  alfalfa  to  discover  the  most  productive  and  economical 
types  for  semiarid  or  dry-land  agriculture.  Perhaps  the  crossing  of 
Turkestan  with  Peruvian  (which  is  not  hardy  in  Kansas)  may  give 
better  types  of  alfalfa  for  semiarid  conditions. 

The  variegated  alfalfa,  or  so-called  "Sand  lucerne,"  produced  by  cross- 
ing, whenever  common  alfalfa  and  Sickle  alfalfa  grow  near  together,  has 
proved  not  only  more  winter-hardy  but  more  drouth-resistant  than  the 
common  Chilean  or  American  alfalfa.  Its  semiprostrate  habit,  resem- 
bling that  of  the  Sickle  alfalfa,  is  its  most  objectionable  feature.  By 


192 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


selection  of  the  more  upright  types  to  breed  from,  this  difficulty  may 
possibly  be  eliminated.  With  this  end  in  view  the  department  of  botany 
of  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  has  this  past  summer  made  a  large 
number  of  crosses  between  an  extremely  upright  type  of  common  alfalfa 
and  the  most  upright  plants  of  Sickle  alfalfa  found  in  the  nursery  rows. 
It  is  possible,  also,  that  crosses  with  the  Cytisus,  or  shrubby  alfalfa  of 
the  Mediterranean  (Medicago  arborea) ,  which  endures  extremely  dry 
conditions  similar  to  those  existing  in  southern  California,  may  give 
promising  results.  This  line  of  experimentation  is  also  being  followed  out 
at  Manhattan. 


FIG.  163.    Tall  type  of  alfalfa,  with  slender  steins  and  narrow  leaves. 


FIG.  164.    Type  of  alfalfa  with  short,  thick  stems  and  numerous  large, 
closely-set  leaves. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


193 


Breeding  for  Forage  Yield. 

The  first  thing  necessary,  as  in  all  other  cases,  is  to  secure  the  best 
foundation  stocks  for  breeding  work.  This  is  done  by  growing  a  large 
number  of  regional  and  commercial  varieties  in  nursery  rows  three  feet 
apart,  with  the  plants  thinned  so  that  they  stand  two  feet  apart  in  the 
row.  These  nursery  rows  are  cultivated  throughout  the  season.  The 


FIG.  165.   Type  of  common  alfalfa  having  short  stiff  branches  thickly  set  with  leaves. 

weight  in  forage  of  the  different  varieties  is  determined  for  several  years 
in  succession.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  best  method  of  beginning  in  a  region 
in  which  alfalfa  has  not  been  grown  to  any  extent.  Otherwise,  in  a 
successful  alfalfa-growing  region,  it  is  just  as  well  to  begin  with  seed 
from  a  typical  first-class  old  stand  of  alfalfa,  growing  under  usual  con- 
ditions. The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  fall,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and 
the  plants  thinned  the  following  spring  until  they  stand  two  feet  apart 
in  the  rows.  This  will  admit  of  horse  cultivation  lengthwise  of  the  rows, 
hoeing  being  necessary  between  the  plants  in  the  rows.  Great  differences 
will  soon  manifest  themselves  among  the  plants.  Some  will  be  upright, 
some  prostrate,  some  with  narrow  and  others  with  broad  leaflets;  some 
with  long,  wiry  branches,  sparsely  set  with  foliage;  others  with  shorter 
branches,  thickly  set  with  leaves.  An  almost  infinite  variety  of  types  will 
be  found,  testifying  to  the  vast  amount  of  intercrossing  that  has  gone  on 
in  the  past. 

The  first  thing  to  do  now  is  to  close-pollinate  the  plants  of  the  best 
types.  This  can  be  done  by  "tripping"  the  blossoms  by  hand.  Alfalfa  is 
one  of  a  small  number  of  leguminous  plants  in  which  there  is  a  trigger- 
like  arrangement  of  the  petals,  the  release  of  which  allows  the  pistil  and 
stamens  to  spring  upward  with  force.  The  alfalfa  flower  consists  of  five 
petals — an  upright  one,  called  the  standard;  two  side  petals,  called  the 
wings;  and  two  lower  ones,  which  are  joined  together  into  a  boat-like 


194  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  166.   Tall,  upright  type  of  alfalfa,  with  heavy  stems  and  numerous  broad  leaves. 


Pia.  167.    Cluster  of  alfalfa  flowers.     "Tripping"  the  flowers  by  hand. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


195 


structure  called  the  keel.  Within  this  keel  are  enclosed  the  stamens  and 
pistil.  The  stamens  are  ten  in  number,  nine  of  them  being  joined  together 
in  a  membranous  ring  around  the  pistil,  the  tenth  being  free.  The  cen- 
tral pistil  is  straight,  or  nearly  so,  in  the  flowers  of  all  alfalfas,  becom- 
ing curved  later  as  the  pod  grows  and  ripens.  It  is  this  pistil  which,  after 
fertilization  of  the  ovules  within,  grows  into  the  pod,  while  the  ovules  be- 
come the  seeds.  The  stamens  bear,  at  their  summits,  yellow  sac-like 
bodies  called  the  anthers,  which  are  filled  at  maturity  with  the  pollen. 
At  the  summit  of  the  pistil  is  the  surface  called  the  stigma,  to  which  the 
pollen  grains  adhere,  and  on  which  alone  they  can  germinate. 

For  close-pollinating  alfalfa  flowers  select  a  warm,  sunny  day.  Tak- 
ing a  flower  that  is  fully  opened,  i.  e.,  in  which  the  standard  is  fully 
spread,  press  down  upon  the  keel  with  a  toothpick  or  other  similar  small 
instrument.  Instantly  the  keel  will  burst  apart,  and  the  pistil,  with  its 


FIG.  168.  Flower  of  alfalfa  with  petals  removed  from  one  side  to  show  the 
organs  of  fertilization,  c,  The  column  of  stamens  that  surrounds  the  pistil;  *,  a 
stamen;  a,  a,  anthers  or  pollen-sacs,  which  terminate  the  stamens.  In  the  center, 
among  the  stamens,  stands  the  pistil,  the  tip  of  which  is  covered  with  feathery 
hairs  and  is  called  the  stigma,  st.  It  is  here  that  the  fertilizing  pollen  falls.  In 
the  background  is  one  of  the  keel  petals,  k,  and  a  wing  petal,  w. 

surrounding  ring  of  stamens,  will  spring  upward  and  towards  the  stan- 
dard, striking  it  with  the  stigma.  The  pollen  is  jarred  out  of  the  anthers 
by  the  spring-like  jerk  of  the  pistil,  and  flies  up  around  the  stigma  in  a 
tiny  cloud  of  fine  yellowish  dust,  settling  upon  it  and  completing  pollina- 
tion. The  pollen  grains  germinate,  send  their  germ  tubes  down  the  stalk 
of  the  pistil,  or  style,  to  the  ovules,  which  they  enter  and  fertilize  the  egg 
cells  therein.  This  constitutes  the  process  of  fertilization,  and  starts  the 
young  embryo  in  its  growth  within  the  seed.  Ordinarily,  in  the  field, 
alfalfa  flowers  are  visited  by  insects  which  trip  the  flowers.  This  is  not 
accomplished  by  the  honeybees  very  extensively,  but  chiefly  by  the  small, 


196 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


wild  leaf -cutter  bee  (Megachile).  The  wind,  threshing  the  branches 
about,  causes  the  springing  or  tripping  of  many  flowers.  Many  are  also 
tripped  automatically  on  sunny,  dry  days.  On  such  days  one  can  often, 
sitting  in  the  midst  of  an  alfalfa  field  in  full  bloom,  hear  distinctly  the 
succession  of  tiny  "clicks"  caused  by  the  tripping  flowers. 


FIG.  169.  Alfalfa  flower  (magni- 
fied) after  tripping,  showing  the  col- 
umn of  stamens  and.  pistil,  c,  which 
have  escaped  from  the  keel  and  have 
struck  against  the  standard. 


FIG.  170.  Highly  magnified  view 
of  the  column  of  stamens  and  pistil 
after  tripping.  Column  of  stamens,  c; 
single  stamen,  8;  anther  or  pollen  sack, 
a;  pollen  escaping,  p;  standard  petal, 
st.  The  tip  of  the  pistil  is  surrounded 
by  the  anthers  and  is  not  visible. 


In  order  to  trip  many  flowers  of  a  plant  rapidly,  and  secure  many 
seeds,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  a  more  rapid  method  than  that  of  tripping 
each  individual  flower  singly.  This  is  accomplished  by  taking  a  head,  or 
raceme,  of  flowers  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and  gently  twisting 
the  thumb  and  finger  about  the  flowers,  pinching  them,  and  thus  spring- 
ing the  mature  flowers  in  rapid  succession.*  If  extensive  field  work  is 
being  done,  the  more  rapid  method,  suggested  by  Westgate,f  of  grasping 
the  entire  plant  at  the  base  with  the  hands,  working  the  hands  up  the 
plant  and  squeezing  the  plant  at  intervals,  is  to  be  preferred.  These  suc- 
cessive compressions  result  in  tripping  a  majority  of  the  flowers.  By 
repeating  the  process  a  day  or  two  later  most  of  the  remaining  flowers 
will  also  be  tripped.  By  this  means  a  considerable  quantity  of  self- 
fertilized  seeds  can  be  obtained,  and  a  desirable  type  of  plant  can  be  ex- 
tensively increased.  By  first  increasing  a  single  plant  by  means  of  cut- 
tings, several  hundred  individuals  identical  with  the  original  may  easily 
be  obtained,  and  by  the  rapid  method  of  self-pollination  the  progeny  may 
then  be  vastly  increased  in  a  very  short  time. 

*  "Alfalfa  Breeding,  Materials  and  Methods,"  by  Roberts  and  Freeman,  Bull.  151, 
Kansas  Exp.  Sta. 

t  "Methods  of  Breeding  Alfalfa  by  Selection,"  by  V.  M.  Westgate,  Am.  Breeders  Ass'n 
Kept.,  vol.  5,  p.  144  (1909). 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  197 

Having  selected  a  considerable  number  of  mother  plants  of  desirable 
types  to  begin  with,  and  having  increased  them  by  the  methods  described, 
it  now  remains  to  sow  the  seed  of  the  close-fertilized  offspring  of  these 
mother  plants  side  by  side  in  nursery  rows,  to  be  tested  for  yield.  The 
field  should  be  level,  of  uniform  texture,  and  should  have  been  previously 
subjected  to  uniform  cropping  treatment.  A  field  previously  divided  into 
small  strips  sown  to  different  kinds  of  plants  should  be  avoided,  on  ac- 
count of  the  consequent  differences  resulting  in  soil  fertility  and  soil  mois- 
ture content,  which  will  materially  affect  the  yield.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
series  of  rows  in  duplicate,  with  a  check  row  of  a  single  variety  (which 
should  be  as  pure  a  strain  as  can  be  gotten)  placed  at  the  beginning  and 
at  the  end  of  each  series.  The  rows  should  be  three  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  should  be  thinned  until  they  stand  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The 
rows  should  all  contain  the  same  number  of  plants — say  one  hundred. 
Each  row  should  be  cut  separately,  and  the  forage  yield  determined. 

It  is  advisable  to  continue  these  comparisons  of  forage  yield  for  three 
years  in  succession,  if  possible,  since  a  single  year's  test  is  not  conclusive. 
A  further  test  is  necessary  which  should  be  carried  on  at  the  same  time 
as  the  general  yield  tests,  viz.,  a  determination  of  the  relative  proportion, 
by  weight,  of  leaves  to  stems.  The  most  valuable  part  of  the  alfalfa 
plant  is  in  the  leaves,  and  in  breeding  a  high-yielding  plant  the  object 
should  be  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  weight  of  leaves  as  compared 
with  the  weight  of  the  stems. 

Having  thus  determined  which  rows  are  the  highest  yielders  of  gross 
forage,  and  which  give  the  highest  percentage  weight  of  leaves,  the  time 

has  come  to  eliminate  the  inferior 
rows,  and  these  should  be  plowed  up. 
Every  effort  should  now  be  devoted 
to  increasing  the  superior  strains. 
Cuttings  should  be  made  in  quanti- 
ties, and,  if  possible,  rooted  in  a 
greenhouse  in  the  fall.  They  can 
be  grown  indoors  over  winter  and 
transplanted  into  the  field  in  the 
spring.  The  second  year  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  close-pollinated  seed 
may  be  obtained  from  these  plants. 
A  field  plot  should  now  be  sown 
for  increase.  The  danger  of  contami- 

f Wcf  JrtH f'wi       nation  from  foreign  pollen  brought 
ing  petals,  w,  w;  and  standard,  s.          by  insects  now  begins,  but  this  can 

not  well  be  avoided.    The  best  that 

can  be  done  is  to  have  the  breeding  plot  in  a  locality  as  remote  from 
other  alfalfa  as  possible.  Yield  tests  on  the  fractional-acre  plan  should 
follow,  and  finally  the  seed  should  be  distributed  among  reliable,  pro- 
gressive farmers  for  cooperative  seed-growing  purposes. 

Breeding  for  Yield  of  Seed. 

The  method  outlined  above  will  hold  in  this  case,  except  that  the  yield 
of  seed  by  weight  takes  the  place  of  the  yield  of  forage.  It  may  be  said, 
in  general,  that  the  yield  of  seed  is  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  yield  of 


198 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


forage.  In  other  words,  plants  that  produce  much  forage  seldom  pro- 
duce much  seed.  Most  of  our  alfalfa  seed  is  produced  under  semiarid 
conditions,  where  the  plants  are  dwarfed  and  stunted  in  their  growth 
from  lack  of  water.  Under  these  conditions,  plants  that  would  not  ordi- 
narily set  seed  in  a  region  of  abundant  rainfall  produce  an  abundance  of 
seed.  We  can  not,  therefore,  expect  to  create  a  double-purpose  alfalfa 
plant,  and  we  must  content  ourselves  with  moderate  demands  in  the  way 
of  seed  production,  if  we  expect  to  have  at  the  same  time  a  heavy  yield 
of  forage. 

Breeding  for  Disease-resistance. 

Nothing  has  thus  far  been  done  in  this  direction  in  the  case  of  alfalfa. 
The  method  to  be  pursued  consists  simply  in  the  selection,  first,  of  regional 
varieties,  and  finally  of  individual  plants,  that  seem  the  least  affected  by 
the  disease  in  question.  Close-pollinated  seed  should  be  secured  from 
such  selected  plants,  and  the  immune  or  partially  immune  race  should  now 
be  grown  between  rows  of  the  varieties  or  strains  that  seem  most  badly 
infested,  in  order  to  determine  effectively  the  degree  of  immunity  which 
it  actually  has.  Once  certain  that  the  new  strain  of  alfalfa  is  wholly  or 
partially  immune  it  should  be  increased  as  before  indicated. 


14.3   X 


FIG.  172.    Calyx  of  alfalfa  flower,  spread  out.     This  forms  a  ring  around  the  base  of 
the  flower.    The  individual  posts  or  teeth  are  called  the  sepals. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


199 


Crossing  Alfalfa. 

The  method  thus  far  described  is  the  method  of  selection.  By  this 
means  nothing  new  is  originated.  We  have  simply  found  out,  and  sorted 
out  superior  alfalfa  plants  from  the  general  lot. 

Suppose  we  now  wish  to  put  together,  into  a  new  plant,  characters 
existing  only  in  different  plants.  To  do  this  we  must  resort  to  crossing. 


alfalfa  flower. 
Fia.  173.    Standard  or  upper  petal  of 

Let  us  now  study  the  structure  of  an  alfalfa  flower.  If  we  examine  the 
flower  we  notice  that  at  the  base  there  is  an  outside  green  hull  with 
pointed  segments.  This  hull  is  called  the  calyx,  and  its  five  segments  are 
called  the  sepals.  The  purple  flower  portion  protruding  from  the  calyx 
is  the  corolla,  consisting  of  five  petals,  viz.,  the  standard,  the  two  wings, 
and  the  two  petals  joined  together,  which  form  the  keel.  Removing  the 
petals,  we  find  within  a  column-like  structure  of  a  whitish  color.  This 


200 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


is  the  pistil,  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  ten  stamens,  which  are  joined  to- 
gether in  a  kind  of  whitish  sheath  or  envelope,  surrounding  the  green 
pistil  within.  At  the  top  of  the  stamens  are  the  anthers,  or  pollen  sacs, 
which  contain  the  fertilizing  pollen.  Roughly  speaking,  we  may  dis- 


FIG.  174.  Keel  petal  of  alfalfa  (center)  spread  open,  with  pockets,  into 
which  fit  projections  from  the  two  wing  petals,  shown  at  either  side.  The 
keel  petal  is  closed  over  the  column  of  the  stamen  and  pistil,  holding  it 
down  through  the  locking  device  made  by  the  projections  from  the  wings 
fitting  into  the  pockets  in  the  keel.  When  the  keel  is  depressed  these  pro- 
jections are  released  and  no  longer  pin  the  keel  and  its  contents  down. 
The  pistil  accordingly  springs  up. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


201 


Fid.  175.     Keel    petal    of    alfalfa 

flower,  spread     open,     showing     the 

pockets  for    the    wing    petal    projec- 
tions. 


FIG.  176.  Wing  petal  of  al- 
falfa, showing  projection  which  fits 
into  pocket  in  keel  petal,  locking  it 
shut. 


FIG.  177.  Pistil  of  alfalfa  flower,  surrounded  by  the  ring  of  ten  stamens.  Nine  of 
these  are  joined  together;  one  is  free.  At  the  top  of  each  stamen  is  an  anther,  which 
contains  the  pollen. 


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Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


tinguish  three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  alfalfa  flower,  and  which 
we  may  speak  of,  respectively,  as  the  straight  bud,  the  curved  bud  and 
the  hooded  bud  stages.  When  the  corolla  is  first  seen  in  the  bud  all  the 
petals  seem  to  be  drawn  together  into  a  straight,  pointed  tip.  (Fig.  178.) 
Soon  the  standard  begins  to  detach  itself  from  the  rest  of  the  petals  and 
its  elevation  forms  a  sort  of  beak  or  upwardly  curved  tip.  (Fig.  ISO/1 
Finally  the  standard  begins  to  open  and  we  have  the  hooded  stag< 
(Fig.  181.) 

Investigation  of  the  condition  of  the  stamens  in  these  various  stages, 
in  the  plant-breeding  laboratory  of  the  College  this  summer,  show  that 
the  pollen  is  shed  by  the  anthers  upon  the  stigma  of  the  pistil  very 


FIG.  178.  Young  alfalfa  bud.  The  calyx  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  corolla  within. 
Of  the  latter  only  the  standard  petal  can  be  seen.  It  is  folded  around  all  the 
others. 


FIG.   179.    Alfalfa  bud.     The  corolla  has  grown  out  beyond  the   calyx,   and  the 
standard  petal  is  getting  ready  to  rise. 


FIG.  180.  Alfalfa  bud.  The  standard  petal  is  now  seen  to  be  distinctly  curving 
upward  in  its  growth.  The  lower  edges  of  the  wing  petals,  which  together  fold 
down  over  the  keel,  now  become  visible. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


203 


early  in  the  development  of  the  flower.  A  careful  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  alfalfa  flowers  shows  that  the  pollen  is  shed  long  before  the 
bud  is  opened,  and  the  chances  of  the  flower  pollinating  itself,  even  before 
the  'flower  opens,  are  very  great. 

From  these  results  it  appears  that  alfalfa  is  easily  self -pollinated.  In 
order  to  cross  a  plant  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  stamens  from  the 
flower  before  they  have  had  time  to* shed  their  pollen  and  pollinate  the 
stigma  of  the  pistil  of  the  same  flower.  In  the  case  of  the  alfalfa  flower, 
its  very  small  size,  especially  in  the  straight-bud  stage,  makes  almost 
an  impossibility  the  removal  of  the  ring  of  stamens  before  they  have 
begun  to  shed  their  pollen.  To  get  rid  of  the  pollen  before  the  flower  is 
ready  to  be  tripped  seems  almost  impracticable  in  the  case  of  alfalfa, 
and  yet  pollen  is  already  scattered  upon  the  stigma  of  the  flower  long 


FIG.  181.  Young  alfalfa  flower.  The  standard  petal  has  risen  nearly  to  its  full  height 
and  is  now  beginning  to  spread.  The  wing  petals  are  now  distinctly  seen  protruding, 
folded  over  the  keel,  which  is  not  yet  visible. 


Fia.  182.    Alfalfa  flower  fully  open  and  ready  for  tripping.     Wing  petals  separating  and 
showing  the  keel  within.     Standard  fully  risen  and  spread. 


204 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


before  the  flower  is  ready  for  tripping.     The  method  we  have  generally 
followed,  however,  in  crossing  alfalfa,  is  as  follows: 

When  the  flowers  are  ready  to  be  tripped,  a  pin  is  inserted  between  the 
standard  and  the  keel,  and  the  latter  is  gently  depressed.  Instantly  it 
opens,  and  the  column  of  pistil  and  stamens  flies  up.  It  is  not  allowed 
to  strike  the  standard,  but  is  turned  to  one  side  past  the  standard.  The 
pin  is  then  removed,  and  the  pollen'  is  washed  out  of  the  anthers  and  off 
the  surface  of  the  stigma  by  means  of  an  atomizer  spray,  a  binocular  lens 
being  worn  to  facilitate  observation  of  the  work.  The  stigma  is  now 
ready  to  be  pollinated  with  pollen  from  another  flower,  which  being  done, 
the  flower  head  is  enclosed  in  a  parchment  paper  bag,  tagged,  and  left 


PIG.  183.    Plant  of  alfalfa  enclosed  in  cage  to  prevent  access  of  insects  to  flowers. 
Used  in  work  of  crossing  alfalfa  by  hand. 

undisturbed  until  the  seed  sets  and  the  pod  begins  to  grow.  The  bag  is 
then  removed,  in  order  to  prevent  overheating  and  the  growth  of  mold 
Such,  briefly,  is  the  process  of  crossing  alfalfa  by  hand.  It  is  a  slow 
and  tedious  operation,  requiring  great  skill  and  care  in  the  manipulations. 
A  more  rapid  method  of  securing  alfalfa  hybrids,  although  the  exact 
parentage  can  never  be  ascertained,  is  to  set  plants  of  the  two  strains 
which  it  is  desired  to  cross  alternately  in  the  same  row,  depending  on  the 
visits  of  insects  to  secure  cross-pollination.  Of  course  a  great  many 
seeds  will  be  self-pollinated — many  more,  usually,  than  will  be  crossed. 
The  problem  will  be  to  distinguish  the  hybrid  plants  from  the  others.  No 
distinctions,  of  course,  can  be  detected  in  the  seeds.  However,  all  the 
seed  ripening  on  the  plants  of  such  a  mixed  row  should  be  harvested  and 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  205 

planted.  If  the  two  strains  which  it  is  desired  to  cross  are  of  markedly 
different  types,  as  is  the  case  with  common  and  Sickle  alfalfas,  which, 
among  other  differences,  have  purple  and  yellow  flowers,  respectively, 
then  it  will  be  comparatively  easy,  when  they  come  into  flower,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  hybrids  from  the  ordinary  self-pollinated  plants.  In  the 
case  just  mentioned,  of  crossing  common  and  Sickle  alfalfas,  the  hybrids 
will  all  have  variegated  flowers,  varying  from  light  yellow,  through 
yellowish  green  and  bluish  green,  to  blue  and  purple,  on  the  same  plant. 
These  plants  can  then  be  close-pollinated  by  the  rapid  method  before 
mentioned  and  rapidly  increased.  For  scientific  purposes,  where  it  is 
desired  to  study  the  inheritance  of  characters  in  the  plants,  this  method 
is  not  used,  since  the  male  parentage  is  always  uncertain  wherever 
insects  are  used  as  the  means  of  transporting  the  pollen.  For  careful 
scientific  work  the  hand  method  of  pollination  is  followed.  The  other 
method,  however,  is  useful  in  a  practical  way  where  it  is  desirable  to 
produce  in  a  short  time  a  large  number  of  hybrids  which  are  to  be  grown 
on  a  considerable  scale.  For  instance,  in  producing  a  hardy  alfalfa  by 
crossing  common  with  Sickle  alfalfa,  if  a  large  number  of  hybrids  can  be 
produced  at  once  between  two  strains  of  these  species,  the  plants  can  be 
rapidly  increased  at  jjjjp  breeding  station  and  afterwards  sent  as  a  whole 
to  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  tested.  Nature  can  then  be  left  to  do  the 
selecting,  winter  by  winter,  as  has  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  Grimm 
alfalfa,  and  finally  the  most  hardy  survivors  will  propagate  the  new 
race.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a  practical  way  of  getting  new  types  of 
alfalfa  rapidly  into  the  field. 

Alfalfa  offers  unrivaled  opportunities  for  the  breeder.  There  are  so 
many  types,  having  so  many  different  characteristics,  that  a  very  wide 
range  of  conditions  can  be  supplied.  The  abundant  intercrossing  that  has 
always  gone  on  in  the  case  of  the  alfalfas  has  given  rise  to  such  a  vast 
number  of  different  types  that  the  most  that  is  usually  necessary  is  to 
select  the  desired  type  and  grow  a  pure  stand  of  it.  However,  as  we  have 
seen,  all  of  the  desirable  features  of  cold-resistance,  drouth-endurance, 
forage  yield,  seeding  capacity,  and  resistance  to  the  various  diseases  to 
which  alfalfa  is  subject,  are  never  combined  in  any  single  alfalfa  plant. 
To  combine  these,  or  as  many  of  them  as  possible,  in  the  same  strain  of 
alfalfa,  calls  for  the  constructive  work  of  a  skilled  and  experienced 
breeder,  who  should  possess,  05  should  know  how  to  utilize,  the  combined 
knowledge  of  the  trained  scientist,  the  experienced  agronomist  and  the 
practical  farmer. 

THE  SEED. 

The  spirally  coiled  pod  of  alfalfa  contains  from  three  to  five  seeds. 
The  shape  of  the  seeds  is  generally  curved,  sloping  to  an  angular  point 
at  one  end.  Many  seeds  are  kidney  shaped,  and  some  few  are  rounded,  or 
rather  oblong.  The  seed  when  dead  ripe  is  of  a  deep  golden  yellow  color. 
Seed  with  a  greenish  tinge  is  slightly  immature,  but  will  grow.  Brown 
or  blackened  alfalfa  seed  is  generally  poor.  Frequently  it  is  seed  that  has 
sweated  and  in  which  the  embryo  has  died.  It  is  always  wise  to  reject  any 
sample  of  alfalfa  seed  containing  many  brown,  black  or  shriveled  seeds. 
Good  alfalfa  seed  should  be  plump,  yellow,  and  free  from  weed  seeds, 


206  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  184.    Seed  pods  of  alfalfa,  magnified. 

dirt  or  debris.  The  standard  weight  for  alfalfa  seed  is  60  pounds  to  the 
bushel.  As  a  matter  of  curiosity  it  may  be  interesting  to  know  that 
there  are  about  220,000  alfalfa  seeds  to  the  pound,  which  would  mean, 
if  sown  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  pounds  to  the  acre,  if  90  per  cent  of  the 
seed  germinated,  3,300,000  plants  per  acre,  or  75  to  each  square  foot  of 
ground.  A  pound  to  the  acre  would  give  five  plants  per  square  foot, 
which  would  be  ample  for  a  good  stand,  except  for  failure  of  some  seeds 
to  grow,  the  death  of  seedlings,  and  the  competition  of  weeds.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  a  few  years  most  of  the  alfalfa  plants  with  which  a 
field  begins  are  crowded  out  by  competition,  or  die  from  other  causes. 
The  number  of  plants  to  the  acre  in  an  alfalfa  field  has  been  found  to 
range  from  as  low  as  70,000  to  as  high  as  653,000.* 

The  inside  of  an  alfalfa  seed  is  much  the  same  as  the  inside  of  a 
bean,  which  belongs  to  the  same  family.  The  entire  interior  of  the  al- 
falfa seed  coat  is  filled  with  the  embryo  or  young  plant,  of  which  the 
larger  part  consists  of  the  two  cotyledons,  or  seed  leaves.  Just  above 
the  scar,  or  hilum  of  the  seed,  where  it  was  attached  to  the  pod,  is  a 
small  opening  called  the  micropyle,  which  can  be  seen  with  a  lens,  but 
which  is  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  through  which  the  moisture 
first  enters  the  seed  when  it  is  planted,  thus  stimulating  the  growth  of 
the  root,  a  minute  structure  lying  between  the  seed  leaves.  The  root 
then  grows  out  through  the  micropyle. 

*  Bull.  110,  Colo.  Experiment  Station. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


207 


FIG.   185.    Seed  pods  of  Sweet  clover, 
magnified. 


Fia.  186.    Seed  pods  of  Pur  clover, 
magnified. 


Fia.  187.    Seed  pods  of  Yellow  Trefoil, 
magnified. 

The  tiny  embryo  stem,  which  lies  partly  below  and  partly  above  the 
junction  of  the  two  cotyledons,  or  seed  leaves,  now  begins  to  grow.  The 
part  below  the  seed  leaves  (called  the  hypocotyl)  grows  very  fast — so 
fast  that  it  curves  up  in  a  loop,  while  the  two  seed  leaves  are  still  held 
fast  to  the  buried  seed.  By  its  growth  it  pulls  the  seed  leaves  out  and 
pushes  its  bent  neck  up  through  the  soil,  just  like  a  bean,  dragging  the 
seed  leaves  after  it,  and  germination  is  then  completed. 

The  vitality  or  germinating  power  of  alfalfa  seed  is  easily  tested. 
Take  two  lots  of  one  hundred  seeds  each  at  random  from  a  sample, 
exercising  care  not  to  choose  or  select  the  best-looking  seeds,  but  simply 
taking  them  as  they  come,  rejecting  all  trash  and  broken  seeds.  Take  a 
piece  of  clean  white  blotting  paper,  5  by  8  inches  in  size,  folded  across 
the  middle,  and  well  moistened  in  clean,  warm  water.  Lay  a  lot  consist- 
ing of  one  hundred  seeds  upon  one  of  the  halves  of  the  blotter,  scattering 
them  out  over  the  surface  so  that  they  will  not  touch  one  another;  fold 
the  other  half  of  the  blotter  down,  and  place  the  folded  blotter  between 
two  ordinary  dinner  plates,  the  upper  one  inverted  over  the  lower  to 


208 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


serve  as  a  cover.  The  pair  of  plates  is  then  set  in  a  warm  place  where 
the  temperature  can  be  kept  at  from  70°  to  75°  F.  Every  twenty-four 
hours  the  plates  and  blotters  are  opened,  and  the  seeds  which  have 
sprouted  in  the  meantime  are  counted  and  the  count  recorded.  In  the 
case  of  the  best  alfalfa  seed,  fully  half  the  seeds  that  will  germinate 
are  found  to  have  sprouted  within  the  first  forty-eight  hours.  The  test 
is  always  continued,  however,  for  five  days.  As  stated,  this  germination 
test  should  be  carried  out  in  duplicate,  and,  if  possible,  three  or  four  lots 
of  one  hundred  seeds  each  should  be  tested. 

After  the  five  days'  germination  test  it  frequently  happens  that  a 
larger  or  smaller  number  of  seeds  are  left  which  refuse  to  germinate, 
despite  the  fact  that  they  appear  perfectly  sound.  These  so-called  hard 
seeds  will  germinate  in  time  in  the  soil.  It  is  the  custom  in  seed  labora- 
tories to  add  one-third  of  the  hard  seeds  remaining  at  the  end  of  the 
germination  test  to  the  total  number  that  have  actually  sprouted,  to 
make  the  final  germination  percentage,  assuming  that  approximately  this 
number  of  the  hard  seeds  will  germinate  in  the  soil.  If  properly  cared 
for  alfalfa  seed  will  live  for  a  long  time.  The  data  at  hand  indicate 
that  absolutely  first-class  seed  kept  under  the  best  conditions  should  not 
fall  below  a  germination  percentage  of  90  in  six  years,  while  seed  that 


FIG.  188.    Alfalfa  seeds,  highly  magnified. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


209 


—8 


210  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

has  been  kept  even  twelve  years  should  germinate  anywhere  between  50 
and  90  per  cent.  In  the  seed  laboratory  of  the  department  of  botany  at 
the  Agricultural  College,  in  the  case  of  one  sample  of  alfalfa  seed  thirty 
years  old,  over  80  per  cent  of  the  seed  germinated. 

BAD   SEED. 

As  stated,  alfalfa  seed  that  is  shriveled  and  dark  brown  in  color  will 
not  grow.  Seed  gf  this  character,  according  to  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  is  actually  imported,  at  a  cost  of  about  two  cents  a 
pound,  for  mixing  with  good  alfalfa  seed.  This  is  done  at  the  farmer's 
expense,  and  to  his  loss.  In  six  months  of  one  year  nearly  67,000  pounds 
of  alfalfa  seed  were  imported  that  contained  from  12  to  70  per  cent  of 
broken  seed  and  trash,  and  in  which  but  5  to  7  per  cent  of  the  seed  would 
grow,  as  determined  by  actual  germination  tests.  One  of  these  imported 
lots  of  alfalfa  seed  contained  nearly  7  per  cent  of  weed  seeds,  or  32,500 
per  pound,  of  which  5495  were  dodder.  It  is  plain  that  seed  of  the  above 
description  consists  simply  of  screenings,  and  no  other  object  for  its 
importation  exists  than  to  use  it  for  "grading  down"  good  native  seed. 
Farmers  should  beware  of  any  alfalfa  seed  in  the  market  that  looks  brown 
or  shriveled.  In  the  Kansas  market  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of 
bad  seed  similar  to  the  above. 

Weed  Seeds  in  Alfalfa. 

In  the  eighteen  months  preceding  November  1,  1914,  the  seed  labora- 
tory at  Manhattan  analyzed  487  samples  of  alfalfa  seed  sent  in  from  all 
parts  of  the  state. 

TABLE  No.  24.     Kinds  of  weed  seed  found  in  alfalfa  seed. 

74  of  the  samples  contained  dodder. 
91   of  the  samples  contained  Russian  thistle. 
34  of  the  samples  contained  star  thistle. 
18   of  the  samples  contained  bindweed. 
16  of  the  samples  contained  chicory. 
5  of  the  samples  contained  Canada  thistle. 


All  of  these,  without  exception,  are  bad  weeds,  and  most  of  them  are 
noxious  weeds.  One  sample  of  alfalfa  seed  contained  57  dodder  seeds 
per  five  grams  (a  rounded  teaspoonful) .  This  would  mean  over  5500 
dodder  seeds  to  the  pound  of  alfalfa  seed.  If  sown  on  the  land  at  the 
rate  of  15  pounds  to  the  acre,  it  would  mean  82,500  dodder  seeds  sown  on 
an  acre,  or  nearly  two  seeds  to  every  square  foot — enough  dodder,  if  only 
half  the  seeds  grew,  to  blot  out  a  field  of  alfalfa  completely. 

Another  alfalfa  sample  contained  enough  seeds  of  bindweed  to  make 
over  1700  to  the  pound — enough  to  sow  25,500  per  acre,  which  means  that 
a  little  less  than  every  two  square  feet  of  ground  in  an  acre  would  be 
planted  with  a  seed  of  the  worst  weed  scourge  known  to  Kansas. 

Another  alfalfa  sample  contained  chicory  seed  in  about  the  same 
amount,  and  still  another  contained  about  the  same  amount  of  wild 
mustard.  p!^, 

One  sample  of  alfalfa  seed  analyzed  contained  470  Russian  thistle 
seeds  in  five  grams.  This  was  enough  Russian  thistle  seed  to  run 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


211 


690,900  seeds  to  the  acre — enough  to  make  16  seeds  of  Russian  thistle  for 
every  square  foot  in  an  acre  of  ground,  if  this  brand  of  so-called  alfalfa 
seed  were  sown  at  the  rate  of  15  pounds  to  the  acre. 

One  sample  contained  1147  seeds  of  foxtail  in  a  teaspoonful,  besides 
175  seeds  of  crab  grass,  and  considerable  numbers  of  other  seeds.  Of 
this  sample,  22.6  per  cent  consisted  of  weed  seeds,  and  4.2  per  cent  trash. 

One  lot  of  alfalfa,  which  the  sender  alleged  to  have  bought  as  "pure 
seed,"  contained  eighteen  kinds  of  weeds,  including  black  bindweed  and 
1000  seeds  of  foxtail  and  other  weed  seeds  per  five-gram  sample  analyzed. 
In  addition,  there  was  6  per  cent  of  trash,  making  36.5  per  cent  foreign 
matter  of  all  kinds  in  this  "pure  seed." 


FIG.  190.    Sweet  clover  seeds,  highly  magnified. 

It  is  bad  enough  when  a  man  is  deceived,  and  plants  poor  and  bad  seed 
unwittingly.  How  much  worse  is  it  where  a  man  wilfully  plants  or  com- 
pels another  to  sow  the  land  down  with  bad  seed?  Here  is  the  case  of  a 
man  whose  "alfalfa"  seed,  so-called,  contained  10.2  per  cent  trash  and  5.5 
per  cent  weed  seed — about  three  times  the  amount  of  weed  seed  that 
should  ever  be  allowed  to  pass.  Among  these  weeds  were  dodder  and 
large  quantities  of  foxtail  and  crab  grass — fourteen  kinds  altogether. 
The  sample  germinated  only  15  per  cent.  And  yet  a  landowner  insisted 
on  his  tenant  planting  this  seed.  With  a  proper  seed  law  such  seed  could 
not  get  on  the  market  at  all. 


212 


Kansas  -State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  191.  Three  types  of  alfalfa  seeds.  Kidney  bean  type  (lower  rows)  ;  pointed 
type  (middle  rows);  and  oblong  type  (upper  rows).  Some  of  the  latter  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  Sweet  clover  seeds. 

Here  are  three  alfalfa  cases  that  came  to  our  attention. 

One  was  alfalfa  seed,  containing  22.5  per  cent  of  weed  seeds,  one- 
fifth  of  which  was  foxtail.  In  addition  there  was  5.9  per  cent  trash. 

In  another  sample  was  28.48  per  cent  of  foreign  seed,  of  which  22  per 
cent  was  foxtail.  In  this  sample  there  was  also  31.6  per  cent  trash. 

A  third  sample  contained  43.3  per  cent  foxtail. 

If  Kansas  had  an  efficient  seed  law  seed  like  this  could  not  get  on  the 
market. 

Adulterated  Seed. 

Adulterated  alfalfa  seed  is  not  so  common  on  the  Kansas  market  now 
as  formerly.  The  chief  adulterants,  when  they  occur,  are  yellow  trefoil 
and  bur  clover.  Yellow  trefoil  (Medicago  lupulina)  is  a  biennial  plant 
with  yellow  flowers,  closely  related  to  alfalfa,  but  vastly  inferior.  It  is 
grown  to  some  extent  on  poor  soils  in  Europe  for  sheep  pasture.  Yellow 
trefoil  is  practically  never  grown  in  this  country,  but  considerable  quan- 
tities of  the  seed  are  imported,  apparently  to  use  in  adulterating  alfalfa 
seed.  Yellow  trefoil  seed  is  difficult  for  an  ordinary  person  to  distinguish 
when  mixed  with  alfalfa  seed.  The  yellow  trefoil  seed,  however,  has  a 
small  beak  or  projection  just  back  of  the  scar,  which  is  lacking  in  alfalfa 
seed,  by  means  of  which  it  can  be  most  easily  identified.  The  identifica- 
tion of  yellow  trefoil  in  alfalfa  seed,  however,  requires  the  services  of  an 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  213 

expert  using  a  good  hand  lens.  Occasionally  seed  of  two  of  the  bur 
clovers  (Medicago  arabica  and  Medicago  denticulata)  are  used  in  the 
adulteration  of  alfalfa  seed.  Fortunately,  however,  the  number  of  cases 
of  actual  adulteration  of  alfalfa  seed  in  this  country  is  comparatively 
small.  The  situation  that  the  farmer  ordinarily  has  to  contend  with  is 
seed  of  low  vitality  and  seed  containing  a  considerable  percentage  of 
weed  seeds. 

KEEPING   THE   WEEDS   OUT. 

In  order  to  get  a  stand  of  alfalfa  free  from  weeds  two  things  are 
plainly  necessary.  First,  land  free  from  weed  seeds,  and  second,  alfalfa 
seed  free  from  weed  seeds.  No  matter  how  clean  the  alfalfa  seed,  if  the 

land  is  foul  with  crab  grass,  foxtail 
and  other  weeds  the  alfalfa  crop  will 
suffer,  and  the  seedsman  will  often  get 
the  blame  that  properly  belongs  to 
the  grower  himself.  To  get  alfalfa 
land  free  from  weeds  it  is  often  the 
best  plan  to  run  it  in  a  succession  of 
cultivated  crops  for  several  years  un- 
til most  of  the  weed  seeds  in  the  soil 
have  sprouted  and  died. 

Where  alfalfa  is  to  be  sown  in  the 
spring,  the  land  should  be  plowed  as 
early  as  possible  and  then  disked  or 
cultivated  with  either  the  common  or 
the  Acme  harrow  every  week  or  ten 

FIG.  192.    Dodder^eeds,  highly  dayg     untu     pknting     time>     which     ig 

usually  well  into  May.  This  will  re- 
sult in  killing  a  vast  number  of  weeds.  The  alfalfa  seed  should  then  be 
planted  as  soon  as  possible  after  a  rain,  in  order  that  it  may  germinate 
and  the  seedlings  may  grow  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  thus  crowd  out  the 
remaining  weeds. 

In  case  of  fall  seeding  after  wheat  or  other  spring  grain,  the  stubble 
should  be  plowed  or  disked  immediately  after  harvest  and  kept  disked 
and  harrowed  until  seeding  time.  Millet,  or  cowpeas  to  be  cut  for  hay 
make  good  catch  crops  to  hold  the  land  from  the  time  the  spring  grains 
come  off  until  seeding  time.  In  the  case  of  land  that  is  very  foul  with 
weed  seeds,  however,  summer  fallowing,  with  frequent  harrowings  pre- 
vious to  fall  seeding,  is  the  best  practice.  (See  "Weeds"  in  index.) 

HAVE   THE   ALFALFA   SEED   TESTED. 

Having  cleaned  up  the  ground,  the  next  thing  necessary  is  to  be  cer- " 
tain  of  planting  clean  seed.  Almost  any  person  can  tell  when  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  weed  seeds  are  present  in  a  sample  of  alfalfa  seed,  but 
the  grower  will  often  overlook  smaller  amounts  of  weed  seeds  that  are 
still  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  harmful.  This  is  especially  true 
of  dodder,  the  seeds  of  which  so  closely  resemble  alfalfa  in  color. 


214 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   193.    Buckhorn  seeds,  highly  magnified. 

The  only  safe  plan  for  the  farmer,  where  alfalfa  seed  is  bought  away 
from  the  neighborhood,  is  to  order  by  sample  and  have  the  samples  an- 
alyzed at  the  seed  laboratory  of  the  Agricultural  College  at  Manhattan 
before  buying  a  bulk  lot.  Much  trouble,  annoyance  and  loss  are  fre- 
quently saved  by  taking  these  precautions.  The  best  way  of  proceeding 
is  to  obtain  from  local  dealers  and  from  several  seed  houses  samples  of 
their  better  grades  of  seed  offered,  and  mail  these  samples  to  the  labora- 
tory for  purity  and  germination  tests.  On  receipt  of  the  reports,  buy 
from  the  best  sample.  A  common  way,  and  the  worst  possible  way,  is  to 
wait  until  a  few  days  before  planting  time  and  then  go  to  town  and  buy 
from  the  local  dealer  the  best-looking  seed  he  has  left.  (See  "Seed,"  in 
index.) 

Alfalfa  is  the  most  expensive  crop  to  prepare  for  well,  and  to  plant, 
that  we  have  in  Kansas,  and  it  is  at  the  same  time  our  most  profitable 
and  certain  crop  when  properly  prepared  for  and  when  a  good  stand, 
free  from  weeds,  is  obtained  on  rich,  fertile  land.  Under  these  condi- 
tions there  is  no  crop  in  Kansas  that  year  in  and  year  out  will  compare 
with  alfalfa  as  a  producer  of  income.  This  being  the  case,  slovenly  prep- 
aration of  the  soil  and  poor,  cheap  seed  are  inexcusable.  In  buying  al- 
falfa seed  but  one  rule  will  apply — the  rule  of  the  man  who  said,  "The 
best  is  none  too  good  for  me." 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  215 

INOCULATION. 

It  seems  like  a  contradiction  in  terms  to  say  that  alfalfa  both  makes 
a  soil  rich  and  needs  a  rich  soil  in  which  to  grow,  but  it  is  a  literal  fact. 

Alfalfa  makes  heavy  drafts  on  the  soil  for  mineral  food.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  producing  a  four-ton  crop  for  five  years, 
requires  90  pounds  of  phosphates,  480  pounds  of  potash  and  1000  pounds 
of  nitrates,  worth  altogether  about  $180.*  The  potash  and  phosphates 
can  be  obtained  from  the  soil  alone,  but  the  nitrates,  after  the  plants 
have  gotten  well  started,  can  be  obtained  from  the  nitrogen  gas  of  the 
air  which  permeates  the  soil.  Certain  bacteria,  or  germs  in  the  soil, 
attack  the  roots  of  all  legumes,  enter  them,  and  cause  the  development 
of  root  tubercles  on  the  roots,  in  the  cells  of  which  they  live  and  multi- 
ply. These  bacteria  are  able  to  use  the  free  nitrogen  gas,  which  consti- 
tutes 80  per  cent  of  the  air,  and  which  no  green  plant  can  use  in  its  raw 
state.  This  gas  they  build  up  into  nitrates,  which  then  become  available 
as  plant  food.  By  means  of  these  powerful  aids  to  growth  the  alfalfa 
plants  are  finally  rendered  independent  of  the  supply  of  nitrates  in  the 
soil,  and,  by  the  decaying  of  their  roots,  considerable  quantities  of  nitrates 
from  the  plant  bodies  are  released  into  the  soil,  enriching  it  for  succeed- 
ing crops. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  nitrates  must  be  present  in  the 
soil  at  the  outset,  in  order  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  alfalfa  plants 
until  their  roots  become  equipped  with  the  necessary  nodules.  This 
occurs  ordinarily  by  the  end  of  the  first  season.  It  is  a  prime  essential 
to  ascertain  whether  the  nodule-forming  bacteria  are  in  the  soil  or  not. 
If  not,  inoculation  is  necessary. 

There  are  many  physiological  varieties  of  the  root-tubercle  organisms. 
Those  which  live  on  red  clover  or  peas,  for  example,  will  not  grow  on 
the  roots  of  alfalfa.  However,  the  common  sweet  clover,  now  coming 
into  such  popularity,  harbors  on  its  roots  the  same  kind  of  germs  that 
infect  alfalfa.  Any  kind  of  land  that  will  grow  a  luxuriant  crop  of 
sweet  clover,  showing  tubercles  on  its  roots,  is  then  already  properly 
inoculated  for  alfalfa.  In  the  case  of  soil  that  needs  inoculation,  two 
methods  are  possible — the  soil  method  and  the  pure-culture  method. 

The  soil  method  has  been  found  by  most  of  the  experiment  stations  to 
be  the  more  certain  and  satisfactory.  By  this  method  not  less  than 
400  to  500  pounds  of  soil  per  acre  are  recommended.  This  may  be  broad- 
casted, or  sifted,  and  applied  with  a  fertilizer  drill.  If  the  inoculated 
soil  has  to  be  brought  from  a  long  distance,  then  200  to  300  pounds  may 
be  used,  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  the  soil  from  the  field  to  be 
inoculated,  and  applied  as  before  stated.  The  inoculated  soil  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool,  shady  place  until  ready  for  use.  If  the  inoculated  soil  is 
broadcasted,  it  is  best  to  put  it  on  in  the  late  afternoon  of  a  cloudy  day, 
since  the  sun's  rays  soon  kill  the  bacteria.  Immediately  after  broad- 
casting the  soil  should  be  well  harrowed. 

Another  method,  recommended  by  the  California  Experiment  Station, 
is  to  take  soil  from  an  alfalfa  or  sweet-clover  field  in  which  the  roots 

*  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Circular  No.  6,  August,  1915. 


216  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

show  an  abundance  of  nodules.  To  this  volume  of  soil  two  or  three 
times  its  volume  of  water  is  added.  The  mixture  is  then  stirred  vigor- 
ously several  times  a  day  for  two  days  and  the  soil  is  then  allowed  to 
settle.  The  alfalfa  seed  to  be  inoculated  is  then  dipped  into  the  water, 
which  is  now  more  or  less  filled  with  the  nodule-forming  bacteria.  The 
seed  is  then  dried  in  the  shade,  sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  run  through 
the  drill  easily,  and  it  is  then  planted.  If  preferred,  the  inoculated  soil 
may  be  puddled,  the  seed  mixed  with  it,  and  the  whole  mixed  with  dry 
soil  and  planted. 

The  only  objection  to  the  use  of  the  soil  method  of  inoculation  is  the 
risk  of  bringing  in  weed  seeds. 

The  pure-culture  method  of  inoculation  consists  in  the  use  of  a  liquid 
culture  of  the  root-tubercle  germs.  This  may  be  obtained  free,  in  small 
quantities  for  experiment,  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Several  commercial  concerns  are  now  also  putting  these  cultures 
on  the  market.  "Farmogerm,"  sold  by  the  Earp-Thomas  Farmogerm  Co., 
of  Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  and  "Nitrogin,"  sold  by  the  German-American 
Nitrogin  Co.,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  are  commercial  cultures  that  have 
proved  successful  under  experiment.  Full  directions  for  the  use  oi 
these  nitro-cultures  are  sent  out  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  by  the  commercial  concerns  referred  to. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  every  alfalfa  field,  in  order  to  be 
profitable  and  successful,  must  have  the  root-tubercle  organisms  in  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  If  there  is  any  reason  to  doubt  their  presence  in 
the  soil  before  planting,  then  the  soil  should  be  inoculated.  Generally 
speaking,  most  of  our  Kansas  bottom  lands  are  already  infected  with 
the  root-tubercle  bacteria.  A  simple  way  of  finding  out  is  to  grow  a 
crop  of  sweet  clover  on  the  land  first.  If  the  sweet-clover  roots  are  well 
infected  with  the  tubercles  the  land  is  ready  for  alfalfa  without  in- 
oculation. If  not,  or  if  only  scattered  plants  are  provided  with  root 
nodules,  or  if  the  nodules  are  few  and  scattering  on  the  roots,  then  addi- 
tional inoculation  is  required.  (See  "Inoculation,"  in  index.) 


PRACTICAL  DRAINAGE  OF  WET  LANDS. 

By  H.  W.  ALBRECHT,  Farmer,  Monmouth,   Crawford  county. 

In  1910  I  bought  eighty  acres  of  low,  wet  land.  It  never  dried  out 
early  enough  in  the  spring  for  any  spring  crop,  and  it  was  too  wet  for 
alfalfa.  When  it  was  wet  it  was  a  bog,  and  when  dry  enough  to  get  onto 
safely  with  a  team  it  broke  up  in  big  chunks.  Before  I  got  it  thirty  acres 
of  the  worst  of  it  was  absolutely  unfarmable  and  was  growing  up  in 
ash  grubs  and  red-haw  brush;  some  of  it  was  a  sour-grass  pasture,  and 
about  forty  acres  of  the  driest  was  farmed.  Knowing  all  this,  I  bought 
the  place,  with  the  idea  of  draining  it,  for  I  recognized  in  it  a  valuaple 
piece  of  land  when  drained  as  I  now  have  it  drained. 

I  blew  out  the  grubs  and  stumps  the  first  season.  I  used  about  800 
pounds  of  40  per  cent  antifreezing  dynamite,  so  you  see  there  were  some 
stumps  and  grubs  there.  I  could  not  see  that  this  shooting  did  any  good 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


217 


218  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

so  far  as  drainage  was  concerned,  as  I  had  hoped  it  would.  My  exper- 
ience has  not  given  me  any  confidence  in  dynamite  as  an  agency  for 
drainage  where  there  is  no  strata  of  gravel  or  sand  under  the  hardpan. 

Turning  to  the  accompanying  map,  you  will  see  that  this  eighty  lies 
in  the  Lightning  creek  bottom,  and  the  land  all  slopes  toward  a  small 
draw  shown  and  marked  on  the  map.  Most  of  the  tile  run  to  the  draw 
parallel  with  the  natural  slope  of  the  land.  In  the  field  west  of  the 
draw  the  natural  slope  of  the  land  is  about  thirty-two  inches  in  sixty 
rods,  and  the  fall  of  the  tile  as  laid  is  one  inch  in  two  rods.  The  little 
field  west  of  the  creek  is  practically  flat.  East  of  the  draw  the  surfa.ce 
is  also  practically  flat,  there  being  about  seven  inches  surface  fall  in 
fifty  rods,  from  where  the  eight-inch  main  turns  east  from  the  draw, 
and  the  fall  of  the  main  tile  is  one-half  inch  to  two  rods.  The  fall  of 
the  laterals  joining  the  east  branches  of  the  main  tile  is  nowhere  less 
than  one  inch  to  two  rods,  and  where  possible  we  gave  more,  as  the  east 
end  of  the  eighty  is  from  five  to  eight  feet  higher  than  where  the  main 
tile  branches  at  its  eastern  or  upper  end.  So  much  for  the  topography. 

The  hardpan  or  tough  clay  subsoil  of  this  eighty  lies  in  undulations 
or  ridges  of  varying  width  and  closeness  to  the  surface.  The  general 
course  of  these  ridges  lies  across  the  natural  slope  of  the  land,  and  the 
pockets  or  valleys  between  them  hold  water.  Until  we  tile  through  these 
ridges  the  land  between  them  remains  wet  and  sour.  The  surface  soil 
varies  as  does  the  subsoil — deep  subsoil,  deep  surface  soil;  shallow  sub- 
soil, shallow  surface  soil.  Some  places  we  reached  no  subsoil  at  three 
and  one-half  to  four  feet — black  muck  all  the  way  down.  At  others,  in 
the  same  ditch,  we  found  the  subsoil  at  twelve  to  fifteen  inches,  where  it 
had  raised  up  just  like  a  horseback  of  sulphur  rock  in  a  coal  pit. 

The  soil  particles  of  the  land  here  are  very  fine,  and  one  must  be 
careful  to  lay  the  joints  of  the  tile  closely  to  prevent  them  from  taking 
dirt.  When  tile  takes  dirt  it  is  usually  caused  by  a  crawfish  hole.  These 
holes  generally  are  in  some  low  spot,  as  a  dead  furrow.  The  water  dur- 
ing a  heavy  rain  gathers  in  the  dead  furrow  and  runs  down  the  hole 
made  by  the  crawfish,  to  the  tile,  and  bores  it  out  bigger.  Some  say  to 
plow  the  field  across  the  tile.  I  have  tried  this,  and  do  not  like  the  plan. 
I  am  breaking  the  field  west  of  the  draw  now,  and  aim  to  leave  my  dead 
furrow  not  right  over  the  tile,  but,  at  most,  not  more  than  a  rod  from  it. 
This  puts  the  ridge  or  backfurrow  about  midway  between  the  laterals,  and 
should  shed  the  water  toward  the  tile  gradually  and  not  all  at  once,  as  it 
does  when  collected  in  a  dead  furrow  and  allowed  to  run  across  the  tile 
drain  in  a  stream,  to  bore  out  the  crawfish  holes. 

When  I  got  ready  to  drain  this  place  I  first  bought  a  farm  level.  It 
is  a  very  useful  little  instrument,  and,  considering  its  cost — $15 — has  a 
very  good  telescope  on  it.  Were  I  to  get  a  new  instrument  I  would  get 
a  $30  instrument,  as  it  has  a  stronger  telescope  and  enables  one  to  be 
more  accurate  at  long  range.  My  instrument  is  good  up  to  sixty  or 
eighty  rods. 

As  to  spades,  I  first  got  solid-backed  spades,  but  owing  to  the  sticky 
nature  of  the  soil  I  got  three  of  the  Iowa  King  or  muck  spades,  or,  as 
some  call  them,  skeleton  spades.  They  can  be  procured  by  any  retailer 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


219 


FIG.  195.    Some  of  the  tools  useful  in  draining  land. 
[Courtesy  International  Harvester  Company.] 

through  any  big  wholesale  hardware  company.  They  are  made  in  16-  to 
22-in.  lengths  and  have  4%-  to  6-in.  bits.  A  20-in.  length  with  a  6-in. 
bit  is  the  most  practical  size  for  any  work  that  I  have  ever  yet  met  with. 
They  are  surely  time-savers — no  friction  and  no  mud-gathering,  as  with 
the  solid-backed  spades.  They  should  not  cost  over  $2.50  each  for  the 
large  size.  Don't  pry  with  them,  for  they  are  made  to  dig  with. 

I  got  two  drain  hoes,  one  4-in.  and  one  6-in.  They  are  to  remove  the 
crumbs  that  fall  from  the  spades  in  digging  the  bottom  or  last  spade- 
layer,  before  you  lay  the  tile,  and  to  surface  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
preparatory  to  laying  the  tile.  I  also  got  a  tile  hook.  This  is  a  piece  of 
^-in.  round  bar  iron,  bent  to  a  right  angle  and  fitted  to  a  garden  rake 
handle.  The  part  standing  at  right  angles  with  the  handle  is  about  ten 
inches  long.  This  is  to  lay  the  tile  with,  and  is  also  a  time-saver,  as  you 
do  not  have  to  get  down  into  the  trench  to  lay  the  tile.  Therefore,  by 
using  the  hook,  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  your  trench  any  wider  than 
for  the  tile,  making  quite  a  saving  of  time  and  labor  in  a  big  job. 

One  will  need  also  a  guide  line  for  the  top-digger;  a  grade  line  for  the 
tile  layer,  and  two  good,  stout  stakes  to  tie  it  to;  and  the  grade  stakes. 
The  grade  stakes  should  be  four  feet  long,  and  can  be  used  many  times  if 
you  always  remember  to  cut  out  the  notch  of  the  previous  survey.  If  you 
don't  cut  out  the  notch  you  are  liable  to  make  serious  mistakes. 


220  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

I  drained  the  field  west  of  the  draw  first.  The  problem  in  this  field 
was1  the  removal  of  the  water  that  came  from  rains  and  occasional  over- 
flows and  gathered  in  a  wide,  flat  basin  in  the  east  fifteen  acres  of  the 
field.  Part  of  it  would  soak  away.  In  digging  our  ditches  we  found, 
about  a  foot  below  the  surface,  a  narrow  ridge  of  hardpan  that  extends 
along  the  draw,  at  no  place  over  fifty  yards  from  it.  This  ridge  is  what 
prevented  the  water  from  getting  away.  We  used  4-in.  tile  in  this  field, 
except  where  we  joined  two  laterals,  where  we  used  6-in.  tile  to  the  outlet. 

We  used  no  intakes  or  manholes,  as  they  are  unnecessary.  Where  an 
intake  is  used  it  is  a  nuisance  unless  properly  constructed.  A  good  intake 
should  be  of  concrete  construction  and  big  enough  for  a  man  to  get  down 
into  and  clean  the  settling  basin  with  a  shovel.  The  bottom  of  the  settling 
basin  should  be  at  least  two  feet  below  the  mouth  of  any  inflowing  or  out- 
flowing tile. 

Between  the  first  and  second  joints  of  tile  at  the  outlet  we  put  in 
^-in.  iron  rods  to  keep  skunks  and  rabbits  from  using  the  tile  as  dens  in 
dry  weather.  We  used  r'ock  to  construct  our  retaining  walls  at  the  out- 
let. Solid  concrete  would  be  better.  Also,  if  the  tile  were  laid  in,  and 
slightly  covered  with  a  coarse  grout  for  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the  out- 
let it  would  be  well,  as  it  would  prevent  animals  from  digging  back 
along  the  tile  and  dislodging  them. 

We  used  the  skeleton  spades  exclusively  to  dig  our  trenches,  removing 
no  more  dirt  than  was  absolutely  necessary.  I  do  not  like  plowing  as  it 
makes  an  awful  muck  when  wet  and  when  dry  the  clods  are  always 
rolling  back  into  the  ditch. 

The  main  part  of  the  after-care  of  a  drainage  system  is  the  care  of 
the  outlets.  Keep  out  the  "varmints"  and  you  will  have  little  or  no 
trouble  if  your  tile  is  laid  and  graded  properly. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  draw  is  the  big  system.  There  over  12,600 
tile  gather  the  water  from  about  30  acres  and  empty  it  out  at  one  8-in. 
outlet.  The  problem  there  was  the  same  as  in  the  field  west  of  the  draw, 
and  added  to  it  was  the  problem  of  caring  for  the  seep  water  from  the 
slope  at  the  east  end  of  the  eighty.  The  map  best  describes  the  placing 
of  the  tile.  The  most  difficult  element  of  the  problem  was  that  of  ar- 
ranging for  enough  fall,  and  we  had  to  lay  the  main  quite  deep  in  order 
that  the  branches  and  laterals  might  have  plenty  of  fall.  It  is  impos- 
sible properly  to  solve  such  a  problem  without  a  careful  survey  with  a 
good  telescope  level.  Any  person  of  reasonable  intelligence  and  educa- 
tion can  use  the  levels  if  they  first  read  the  directions  and  follow  them 
exactly.  So  if  you  are  thinking  of  tackling  any  such  problem  a  good 
level  may  save  you  a  lot  of  grief  and  expense. 

The  first  effect  of  drainage  on  this  land  was  the  making  of  thirty 
acres  of  the  place  capable  of  the  production  of  crops  instead  of  ash 
grubs,  malaria  and  crawfish.  It  loosened  the  soil  by  taking  out  the  sur- 
plus moisture,  leaving  just  the  right  amount  for  the  proper  condition 
of  the  soil.  It  deepened  the  soil,  as  the  stationary  water  level  in  the 
ground  was  lowered,  and  the  plant  roots  can  go  down  instead  of  rotting 
off  in  the  stale,  poisonous  water  that  formerly  was  just  below  the  surface. 
One  can  get  into  the  field  sooner  after  a  rain  or  overflow.  I  have  cul- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


221 


PIG.  196.    A  good  levnl  will  save  a  lot  of  grief  and  expense. —  [Courtesy  Ohio  Farmer.] 

tivated  corn  after  two  days  of  good  drying  weather  following  a  two-inch 
rain.  I  have  broken  ground  after  five  days  of  good  drying  weather  fol- 
lowing an  overflow.  In  five  days  after  an  overflow  the  water  had  lowered 
to  sixteen  inches  below  the  surface,  as  seen  in  the  crawfish  holes  midway 
between  the  laterals.  This  was  where  there  is  no  hardpan  and  the  sur- 
face soil  is  from  two  and  one-half  to  four  feet  deep.  The  tiled  lands 
stand  the  drouth  better  than  the  untiled,  as  plants  can  root  deeper  and 
have  thereby  a  larger  root  system  to  draw  moisture  and  plant  food.  I 
have  found  this  particularly  true  with  alfalfa  here  in  our  bottom  land. 
Alfalfa  does  well  when  corn  does  well,  and  they  both  grow  rankest 
right  over  the  tile.  Where  they  fail  in  tiled  land  you  will  find  a  hardpan 
spot  if  you  dig  for  it.  You  will  not  have  to  dig  deep.  Use  plenty  of 
manure  on  this  spot  so  that  the  roots  will  not  need  to  go  so  deep  for 
plant  food. 

The  drainage  system  described  cost  from  $1050  to  $1100  for  the  whole 
eighty,  including  cartage  one  and  one-half  miles  from  the  railroad,  survey, 
laying,  and  covering.  It  has  more  than  doubled  the  value  of  the  farm. 
This  season  (1915),  one  of  the  wettest  on  record,  we  had  overflows  and 
very  heavy,  continuous  rains.  From  21  acres  of  the  wettest  ground  we 
got  300  bushels  of  corn,  and  from  20  acres  more  we  cut  about  40  tons  of 
alfalfa.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to  farm  any  of  this  land  without 
drainage. 

I  have  never  used  any  lime  or  fertilizer  on  such  land  as  yet,  for  I 
believe  it  useless  to  use  lime  when  the  land  is  so  full  of  water.  Drainage 
sweetens  land — this  I  know — and  lime  may  do  some  good  later,  when 
used  with  manure,  for  alfalfa,  clover  or  SQme  other  legume. 


222 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


THE   DETAILS   OF   TILING. 

From  now  on  I  will  try  to  handle  this  subject  as  though  I  were  on 
your  place  trying  to  help  solve  a  drainage  proposition  interesting  you. 
We  will  go  out  and  look  the  ground  over.  We  will  set  up  our  level,  and, 
if  you  need  it,  I  will  instruct  you  in  the  use  of  the  rod.  We  will  then 
take  a  reading  where  we  want  our  outlet,  and  set  it  down  in  our  note- 
book. Then  you  will  start  to  where  you  want  the  upper  end  of  your 
ditch,  following  the  general  course  that  you  want  the  ditch  to  take.  You 
will  take  various  readings  as  you  go  along,  and  set  them  down  in  the 
notebook,  till  you  get  to  where  you  expect  to  finish  your  ditch.  Now 
we  have  an  idea  of  the  general  fall  of  the  surface  where  your  intended 
ditch  is  to  be.  If  that  is  great  enough — say  3  inches  to  100  feet — we 


FIG.  197.    The  main  tile  should  be  sufficiently  large. —  [Courtesy  Ohio  Farmer.] 

will  give  the  tile  the  same  fall  as  the  surface.  If  the  surface  is  flat  we 
must  put  the  fall  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch — that  is,  dig  our  outlet  deep 
enough  so  that  the  tile  at  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch,  being  at  least  30 
to  36  inches  in  the  ground,  will  have  fall  enough — at  least  2  or  3  inches 
to  each  100  feet. 

Now  we  will  drive  our  stakes,  placing  the  first  one  at  the  outlet.  From 
it  step  off  11  steps,  or  about  2  rods,  and  drive  another  stake;  11  steps 
more  and  another  stake,  and  so  on  until  you  have  reached  the  other  end. 
We  will  suppose  it  is  30  rods  away,  and  as  we  have  2  rods  between  stakes 
we  will  call  it  15  "stations."  Now  suppose  we  give  the  ditch  1  inch  fall, 
to  the  "station,"  which  is  about  3  inches  to  100  feet.  Cut  a  notch  on  the 
stake  at  your  outlet,  about  12  inches  from  the  ground.  Rest  the  lower- 
end  of  your  rod  on  your  knife  blade  sticking  in  the  notch,  and  adjust  the 
target  to  my  level,  as  I  shall  instruct  you.  Get  your  reading,  slide  your 
target  down  one  inch  and  clamp  it.  Move  to  the  next  stake,  place  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  223 

cutting  edge  of  your  knife  to  the  next  stake,  somewhere  near  the  place 
you  think  it  should  be,  resting  the  lower  end  of  your  rod  on  it.  Adjust 
to  my  level,  as  I  shall  instruct  you,  and  when  correct  cut  your  notch, 
lower  your  target  one  inch,  and  proceed  to  the  next  stake,  and  so  on  till 
the  last  one.  Now  we  have  our  grade. 

Next  we  will  dig  a  few  rods  of  the  top  soil,  so  stretch  out  the  top- 
digger's  guide  line,  so  that  you  can  dig  a  straight,  smooth-finished  ditch. 
This  makes  it  much  easier  for  the  bottom  man  or  tile  layer,  and  the 
better  you  can  make  conditions  for  him  the  faster  he  will  get  along.  He 
is  the  man  that  draws  the  big  pay.  The  top-digger  is  supposed  to  dig 
the  top  layer  or  spade-length  of  soil  and  shovel  out  the  crumbs  that  fall 
back  from  his  spade.  A  round-nosed  shovel  is  the  best  for  removing  the 
crumbs. 

Now,  having  thrown  off  some  of  the  top,  let  us  get  ready  to  throw 
out  the  next  spade-length  and  lay  some  tile.  First  we  will  drive  two 
stout  stakes  right  by  the  first  and  second  grade  stakes,  and  stretch  a 
stout  mason's  line  between  them,  each  end  being  tied  exactly  at  the 
same  height  as  the  notches  on  the  grade  stakes.  This  line  is  exactly 
parallel  to  the  line  of  notches  on  the  grade  stakes,  and  is  therefore 
parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  on  which  you  will  lay 
the  tile.  As  you  dig  the  last  spade-length  you  will  need  a  wooden  square 
to  measure  the  depth  of  the  ditch  below  the  grade  line.  Make  this  of 
light,  straight  lath,  having  the  long  arm  of  the  square  equalling  the  depth 
of  the  ditch  below  the  grade  line  and  the  short  arm  from  18  to  24  inches 
long.  Now  start  digging  the  last  spade-length,  leaving  about  one-half 
to  one  inch  of  solid  dirt  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  to  plane  out  with 
your  drain  hoe.  With  the  drain  hoe  leave  a  smooth,  rounded  channel  in 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  for  the  tile.  Use  your  square  as  you  need  it, 
to  see  if  you  are  keeping  the  bottom  of  your  ditch  parallel  with  your 
grade  line,  thereby  insuring  an  even  fall  all  along  your  ditch. 

Now  we  will  "lay"  the  first  "station."  Get  your  hook,  which  I  have 
previously  described,  and  lay  in  your  first  tile;  now  another  one,  mak- 
ing it  fit  up  against  the  first  one  as  well  as  you  can.  If  any  of  your 
tile  are  chipped,  put  the  hole  on  top  so  you  can  see  it,  and  before  you  cave 
off  the  side  of  your  ditch  to  bed  your  .tile  cover  these  holes  with  pieces 
of  broken  tile.  If  you  leave  holes  in  the  bottom  the  crawfish  will  some- 
times throw  mounds  up  through  them  and  stop  the  tile.  The  tiler  should 
close  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch  with  a  flat  stone  over  the  end  of  the 
tile  and  tramp  the  dirt  solidly  behind  it. 

Always  pick  out  the  hardest  tile  for  the  outlet  of  your  ditch  or  sys- 
tem. They  are  not  so  apt  to  crumble  from  freezing  and  thawing. 

Where  you  join  a  lateral  onto  a  main  or  branch,  use  "Y's."  If  you 
have  to  break  a  joint  to  fit,  use  a  monkey  wrench,  setting  the  jaws  on 
the  tile  and  prying  in,  never  out.  David  Lessen,  a  well-known  German 
tiler  of  Central  Illinois,  is  the  originator  of  this  trick;  so  please  give 
him  the  credit.  It  is  a  time-saver.  When  you  get  your  joint  made  lay  a 
piece  of  heavy  building  paper  over  it  and  throw  on  a  shovelful  or  two  of 
good  wet  grout  or  concrete.  This  makes  a  perfect  union. 


224 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   198.    A  well-constructed  outlet  is  one  of  the  keynotes  of  a  successful  drainage  system. 

[Courtesy  Ohio  Farmer.] 

Now  cave  off  the  side  of  your  ditch,  leaving  the  tile  bedded.  This  is 
the  end  of  the  tiler's  responsibility,  and  the  employer  must  take  charge 
after  this  and  fill  the  ditch.  He  may  fill  it  with  a  plow.  Use  a  long 
evener  with  a  team  at  each  end,  a  man  to  hold  the  plow  and  one  to  drive, 
and  you  can  fill  lots  of  ditch  in  a  short  time. 

Counting  ten  hours  as  a  day,  and  paying  two  men  $3  a  day  each  for 
working  two  wagons,  on  good  roads,  4-in.  tile  can  be  moved  at  a  cost  of 
$1  to  $1.25  per  mile  per  1000,  6-in.  tile  at  from  $2  to  $2.50  per  mile  per 
1000,  and  8-in.  tile  at  from  $4  to  $5  per  mile  per  1000.  Two  men  work- 
ing together — top-digger  and  tiler — in  good  digging,  should  lay  from  20 
to  25  rods  of  tile,  two  spades  deep,  a  day,  at  a  cost  of  $2.50  a  day  for 
the  tiler  and  ten  cents  per  rod  for  the  top-digger,  generally  with  board 
included.  (See  "Drainage,"  in  index.) 


LIMING  SOILS  IN  KANSAS. 

By  ERASMUS  HAWORTH,  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Kansas. 

Should  one  travel  across  the  eastern  half  of  the  state  of  Kansas 
from  southeast  to  northwest  he  would  find  himself  passing  continuously 
across  zones  or  strips  of  country  that  show  quite  a  variation  in  the  kind 
of  crops  ordinarily  grown  by  the  farmers.  Perhaps  the  most  noticeable 
variation  would  be  that  of  the  growth  of  red  clover  and  alfalfa.  Here  is 
a  zone  throughout  which  the  farmers  generally  are  raising  both.  Beyond 
it  is  a  zone  with  neither.  A  few  miles  further  one  finds  that  clover  and 
alfalfa  are  raised  abundantly,  and  beyond  this  similar  alternations. 

The  traveler  who  is  thus  passing  across  the  state,  however,  rarely 
travels  more  than  a  day  with  the  old-fashioned  horse  team,  or  its  equiva- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  225 

lent  in  distance,  until  he  passes  out  of  the  zone  throughout  which  clover 
will  not  grow,  and  into  a  zone  where  clover  grows  luxuriantly  and  is  a 
common  crop. 

No  sooner  had  I  begun  the  study  of  the  geology  of  Kansas  than  I 
observed  that  the  outcropping  of  our  limestone  masses  formed  zones 
trending  north  and  south,  corresponding  closely  with  the  zones  throughout 
which  red  clover  would  grow  luxuriantly,  while  the  zones  of  no  clover  lie 
in  between  the  zones  of  limestone  soils.  It  is  now  well  understood  that 
the  growth  of  leguminous  plants  in  general,  including  all  the  clovers,  is 
helped  greatly  by  the  growth  in  the  soil  of  friendly  bacteria  which  draw 
nitrogen  from  the  air.  Acid  soils  kill  these  friendly  bacteria,  so  that 
clovers  grow  very  poorly  in  all  acid  soils. 

The  limestones  of  Kansas  form  great  beds  outcropping  on  the  east  in 
irregular  lines  at  the  surface,  and  dipping  back  to  the  west  at  a  very  low 
angle.  In  between  these  limestone  shelves  are  great  beds  of  shales  and 
sandstones.  Kansas  soils  in  general  are  made  from  local  rocks  by 
weathering  agents  acting  upon  them  in  place.  Therefore,  the  soils  made 
from  weathering  the  limestones  form  narrow  zones  stretching  across  the 
state  from  north  to  south,  and  the  soils  made  from  weathering  the  shales 
form  zones  lying  in  between  the  limestone  soils. 

The  accompanying  block  map  of  Kansas  shows  the  relations  of  shale 
and  limestones  to  each  other,  and  how  and  why  we  have  these  zones  of 
limestone  soils  alternating  with  shale  soils. 

Now  it  happens  that  the  Kansas  shale  beds  have  in  them  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  well-known  mineral,  pyrite,  a  double  sulphide  of  iron,  which 
by  oxidation  produces  large  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  as  the  shales 
weather  into  soils,  and  such  soils,  being  acid  in  character,  will  not  let  the 
friendly  bacteria  grow,  and  so  the  clovers  can  not  grow. 

The  presence  of  lime  makes  it  possible  for  alfalfa  or  clover  to  grow. 
It  is,  therefore,  desirable  for  the  farmers  of  the  state  to  have  a  clear  and 
definite  statement  put  before  them  of  how  and  where  they  may  obtain 
lime  for  liming  their  acid  soils. 

For  more  than  twenty  years  the  Geological  Survey  of  Kansas  has 
been  studying  and  mapping  in  detail  the  location  of  the  various  lime- 
stone formations  within  our  state.  The  accompanying  map  is  an 
abridgement  of  other  maps  already  published  in  the  Geological  Survey 
reports.  It  is  intended  to  show  that  the  limestones  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  state  particularly,  and  of  the  western  part  to  some  extent,  cover 
such  large  areas  that  a  farmer  at  almost  any  place  will  have  to  haul  or 
transport  his  lime  but  a  short  distance. 

CHARACTER  OF  KANSAS  LIMESTONES. 

The  limestones  of  Kansas  have  been  studied  very  extensively,  not  only 
with  reference  to  where  they  occur,  their  thickness,  their  general  position 
and  other  geological  features,  but  their  chemical  composition  as  well  has 
been  studied  in  sufficient  detail  so  that  one  may  speak  with  a  certainty 
regarding  their  chemical  composition.  It  is  one  of  the  surprising  features 
or  facts  of  nature  that  our  limestones  should  be  so  nearly  uniform  in 
composition.  The  hard  limestones  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  which 
are  so  abundant,  have  not  enough  difference  in  composition  throughout 


226 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  227 

the  entire  area  to  be  of  any  special  concern  to  the  farmer  who  is  liming 
soils.  As  we  progress  westward  we  find  the  limestones  changing  in 
hardness  and  color,  and  one  would  expect  their  chemical  composition 
would  change  also.  In  this,  however,  one  is  mistaken,  because,  with  minor 
exceptions,  the  composition  remains  substantially  the  same.  If  we  travel 
still  further  west  into  the  regions  of  the  limestone  so  extensively  used 
for  fence  posts  throughout  a  zone  reaching  entirely  across  the  state,  we 
find  here  that  the  chemical  composition  is  almost  the  same.  Still  further 
west  we  have  the  chalk  beds  of  Kansas,  which  are  nothing  but  limestone, 
and  the  composition  of  those  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
hardest  limestones  in  the  eastern  end  of  the  state. 

Pure  limestone,  could  we  find  such,  would  be  100  per  cent  carbonate 
of  lime  (CaCOs).  We  may  take  this  as  our  standard  for  purity,  and 
gauge  other  samples  by  it.  No  limestone  anywhere  in  the  world  has 
ever  been  found  that  would  analyze  100  per  cent  pure.  Kansas  lime- 
stones rarely  fall  under  90  per  cent  pure,  and  with  equal  rarity  exceed 
95  per  cent  in  purity.  We  may  say,  therefore,  that  limestones  in  the 
east  will  analyze  from  88  to  96  per  cent  pure;  also,  that  the  softer  lime- 
stones in  the  middle  part  of  the  state  have  substantially  the  same  com- 
position, and  the  chalk  beds  in  the  west  do  not  differ  from  this  in  any 
material  respect.  This  is  so  high  a  degree  of  impurity  that  our  Kansas 
limestones  are  of  little  value  for  the  production  of  ordinary  lime.  It  is 
one  of  the  strange  features  of  commerce  in  Kansas  that  lime  is  shipped 
into  the  state  from  outside,  although  perhaps  no  other  state  in  the  Union 
is  better  supplied  with  large  amounts  of  limestone  than  Kansas.  The 
impurities  ranging  from  little  more  than  10  per  cent  in  extreme  cases 
down  to  less  than  5  per  cent  make  Kansas  limestones  impossible  for  the 
production  of  a  high-grade  lime. 

What  are  these  impurities?  Are  they  anything  which  would  injure 
the  soil  should  we  apply  such  limestone  to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer?  Or,  are 
they  of  such  a  nature  that  their  effect  would  be  neutral,  so  that  their 
presence  is  objectionable  only  on  account  of  their  acting  as  a  dilutent? 
An  affirmative  answer  should  be  given  to  the  last  question.  The  impur- 
ities are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  do  no  harm  when  added  to  the  soil. 
Their  main  objection — in  fact,  their  only  objection — therefore,  is  on  ac- 
count of  their  diluting  the  limestone  to  that  extent.  This  makes  it  so 
that  one  may  feel  perfectly  safe  in  applying  Kansas  lime  to  the  soil  for 
agricultural  purposes,  because  one  may  know  that  he  is  adding  nothing 
whatever  that  would  be  in  any  way  objectionable.  Chemical  analysis 
shows  that  the  impurities  consist  almost  entirely  of  silica  (SiCh), 
aluminum  (Al^Oo),  and  iron  oxide  (Fe2O3).  We  have  probably  a  very 
slight  trace  of  the  alkalies,  and  in  some  cases  an  appreciable  amount  of 
magnesia,  but  not  to  any  considerable  degree.  The  soft  limestone  in 
middle  and  western  Kansas  which  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  more 
have  been  called  "magnesian  limestone"  do  not  carry  magnesia  to  any 
considerable  extent.  The  name  is  a  misnomer  which  should  be  done  away 
with  and  forgotten.  The  soft  limestones  in  general  will  make  just  as 
high-grade  lime  as  the  harder  limestones  throughout  the  state. 


228  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

The  impurities — silica,  aluminum  and  iron  oxide — that  constitute 
from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  our  Kansas  limestones,  are  substantially  the 
same  as  soil.  Pick  up  a  handful  of  soil  from  a  wheatfield  or  cornfield, 
have  it  analyzed,  and  ordinarily  more  than  90  per  cent  of  it  will  be  silica, 
aluminum  and  iron  oxide.  One  may  dismiss  the  impurities  in  our  lime- 
stone, then,  with  an  assurance  that  they  in  no  way  will  injure  the  soil, 
and  are  objectionable  only  by  acting  as  a  dilutent. 

A  careful  study  of  the  accompanying  map  will  show  where  limestone 
may  be  found,  and  how  far  one  will  have  to  transport  it  to  his  farm.  It 
is  probable  that  some  farmers  will  find  it  desirable  to  have  the  limestone 
shipped  to  them  by  rail.  For  others  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  local 
crushers  supply  crushed  limestone  for  wagon  trade.  Crushed  limestone 
may  be  shipped  as  the  cheapest  kind  of  freight,  so  that  if  it  becomes 
necessary  to  ship  it  by  rail  it  can  be  carried  for  a  very  small  expense. 

WHAT    SOILS   NEED   TO   BE   LIMED. 

All  acid  soils  will  be  improved  greatly  by  having  lime  added  to  them. 
Soils  formed  from  shales  have  too  much  sulphuric  acid,  and  need  lime  to 
destroy  the  acid.  Other  soils  which  for  years  have  had  excessive  growths 
of  grass  and  weeds  are  likely  to  be  acid  from  the  vast  amount  of  organic 
acids  produced  by  a  partial  decomposition  of  weeds  and  grass.  This  is 
generally  true  of  freshly-drained  swamp  lands.  The  soils  have  so  much 
decaying  organic  matter  in  them  that  at  times  they  are  good  for  little 
until  the  organic  acids  have  been  neutralized  or  destroyed.  All  such 
soils  should  be  limed. 

FORM   OF   LIME   TO   APPLY. 

It  is  important  to  know  the  form  of  lime  to  apply  to  soil.  Should  one 
use  raw  limestone  or  quicklime?  The  answer  is  that  either  will  do  good. 
It  is  merely  a  question  of  time.  Quicklime  will  act  immediately  and  ac- 
complish its  purpose  largely  the  first  season,  after  which  its  beneficial 
results  will  gradually  decline  for  years.  Crushed  limestone  added  to  an 
acid  soil  acts  more  slowly,  but  ultimately  accomplish.es  the  same  results. 
The  finer  it  is  crushed  the  more  quickly  it  will  act,  so  that  if  ground  to  an 
impalpable  powder  it  will  act  almost  as  rapidly  as  quicklime.  The  ex- 
treme in  coarseness  would  be  fragments  of  any  size  not  too  large  to  inter- 
fere with  the  plow.  Such  large  pieces  will  have  but  little  effect  during 
any  one  year,  but  nevertheless  each  piece  will  gradually  yield  to  weather- 
ing and  slowly  rectify  an  acid  soil,  and  will  continue  in  its  well-doing  as 
long  as  it  lasts,  or  until  it  is  finally  all  dissolved. 

A  word  of  caution  should  be  given  regarding  the  use  of  quicklime.  If 
used  in  excess  it  becomes  injurious  to  growing  crops,  so  that  at  first  it 
may  prove  a  detriment  if  applied  in  too  large  quantities.  Its  ability  to  do 
harm,  however,  is  but  temporary,  for  in  the  course  of  time  it  absorbs 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air  and  passes  back  into  the  form  of  lime  car- 
bonate again,  from  which  it  came,  or  as  it  was  in  the  original  limestone, 
after  which  it  acts  precisely  as  finely  pulverized  limestone. 

Limestone  may  be  burned  into  quicklime  very  economically  in  places 
where  fuel  is  cheap.  Our  fathers  and  grandfathers  generally  burned  lime 
for  their  own  uses  by  making  piles  of  broken  limestone,  well  mixed  with 
wood  or  other  fuels,  and  then  burning  the  fuel.  Often  the  larger  pieces 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  229 

of  limestone  would  be  only  partly  burnt,  leaving  a  cone  of  unchanged  lime- 
stone. Of  course  the  charcoal  and  cone  ash  of  the  fuel  will  be  more  or 
less  mixed  with  the  lime,  but  for  liming  soils  this  will  do  no  harm.  As  is 
well  known,  the  burnt  lime  can  be  crushed  very  easily,  so  that  its  applica- 
tion to  the  soil  will  be  readily  effected. 

Should  one  ship  lime  or  limestone  very  far  it  might  become  eco- 
nomically desirable  to  have  it  all  burnt  in  order  to  reduce  weight.  In 
burning  lime  from  limestone  the  heat  drives  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  thereby 
reducing  the  weight.  For  theoretically  pure  lime  carbonate,  each  100 
pounds  will  be  reduced  to  56  pounds  by  burning.  In  other  words,  a  pure 
limestone  is  56  per  cent  quicklime  and  forty-four  per  cent  carbonic  acid 
gas.  As  our  Kansas  limestones  are  about  10  per  cent  impure,  we  would 
have  a  reduction  in  weight  of  44  per  cent  of  90  per  cent,  or  a  little  less 
than  40  per  cent.  This  is  a  great  reduction  in  freight  and  drayage,  and 
should  be  considered  carefully  by  each  one  for  himself.  The  56  pounds  of 
quicklime  obtained  from  100  pounds  of  limestone  does  exactly  the  same 
good  as  the  original  100  pounds  of  limestone. 

MODE   OF   PULVERIZING   LIMESTONE. 

We  now  have  in  the  state  of  Kansas  quite  a  number  of  Portland- 
cement  plants,  each  of  which  is  using  limestone  in  the  manufacture  of 
Portland  cement.  Every  factory,  perhaps,  could  be  prevailed  upon  to 
sell  crushed  limestone,  and  the  rate  at  which  it  could  be  bought  would 
depend  upon  the  degree  of  fineness  to  which  it  was  ground.  It  costs  money 
to  grind  limestone  to  a  fine  powder,  especially  if  it  is  ground  to  an  impal- 
pable powder.  These  Portland-cement  plants,  of  course,  are  located  on 
railroads,  and  if  one  would  wish  to  buy  finely  ground  limestone  and  have 
it  shipped  to  his  station  it  might  be  best  to  buy  of  them.  It  is  a  business 
not  yet  worked  up,  and  the  farmer  should  not  be  discouraged  if  the 
cement  companies  at  first  should  ask  too  high  a  price,  or  ignore  him  en- 
tirely. 

We  also  have  a  few  factories  built  especially  for  selling  crushed  lime- 
stone for  concrete  and  for  railroad  ballast.  Each  of  these  could  supply 
a  large  amount  of  the  raw  limestone  for  use  if  it  is  not  desired  too  finely 
ground. 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  if  liming  soils  becomes  general  in  Kan- 
sas, portable  crushers  will  be  used  to  a  great  extent,  so  as  to  save  freight 
and  drayage.  A  number  of  the  large  manufacturers  of  rock-crushing 
machinery  already  have  on  the  market  portable  crushers  and  grinders 
that  crush  and  grind  limestone  to  a  degree  of  fineness  amply  sufficient 
for  liming  soils.  .Such  portable  crushers  could  be  taken  from  point  to 
point  along  the  outcropping  ledges  of  limestone,  so  that  the  distance 
farmers  would  have  to  haul  the  crushed  rock  would  not  be  prohibitive. 

GOOD  ROADS  AND  LIMING. 

I  can  not  close  this  paper  without  calling  attention  to  the  close  rela- 
tion which  might  be  made  to  exist  between  liming  soils  in  eastern  Kan- 
sas and  building  good  roads.  It  is  well  known  that  in  many  parts  of  the 
state  our  country  roads  are  actually  worse  now  than  they  were  twenty 
and  thirty  years  ago.  In  the  western  part  of  the  state,  where  rainfall  is 


230  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  200.  It  is  probable  that,  if  liming  soils  becomes  general  in  Kansas,  portable  crushers  will 
be  used  to  a  great  extent,  so  as  to  save  freight  and  drayage. —  [Courtesy  New  York  Experiment 
Station.  ] 

not  so  great,  roads  are  much  better  than  in  the  eastern  end,  where  rain- 
fall often  is  excessive. 

Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  good,  hard  limestone  more  abundant,  nor 
more  easily  quarried  and  crushed,  and  no  better  road-building  material 
is  known  than  this  same  broken  limestone,  when  properly  mixed  with 
good  Portland-cement  mortar.  In  crushing  rock  for  road  making  there 
is  a  portion  broken  too  finely  for  good  service,  and  this  could  be  sent  to 
the  farms  for  liming  soils.  (See  "Lime,"  in  index.) 


ALFALFA  SOILS;  THEIR  PREPARATION  AND  SEEDING. 

By  L.  E.  CALL,  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

SOILS. 

Alfalfa  is  undoubtedly  more  exacting  in  its  soil  requirements  than 
any  other  crop  that  is  extensively  grown  on  the  farms  of  Kansas.  The 
crop,  for  its  best  development,  must  make  a  deep  root  growth.  Conse- 
quently, a  soil  to  be  well  adapted  to  it  must  have  a  subsoil  that  is  deep 
and  at  the  same  time  mellow  enough  to  be  readily  penetrated  by  plant 
roots.  A  good  alfalfa  soil  must  also  be  well  drained,  for  alfalfa  roots 
are  very  sensitive  to  standing  water.  This  crop  is  killed  out  in  a  very 
short  time  if  water  stands  in  the  soil  within  three  feet  or  less  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

While  alfalfa  is  a  crop  that  will  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  it  is 
at  the  same  time  one  that  requires  a  soil  in  a  fairly  high  state  of  fer- 
tility if  it  is  to  develop  at  its  best.  This  is  especially  true  of  young 
alfalfa  plants.  The  young  plants  are  not  ravenous  feeders,  and  must 
have  an  abundance  of  readily  available  plant  food  if  they  are  to  be- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  231 

come  healthy,  vigorous  plants.  Alfalfa  more  often  fails  in  eastern  Kan- 
sas because  the  young  plants  are  starved  than  from  any  other  one  cause. 

Alfalfa  also  requires  for  its  growth  an  abundance  of  lime,  and  is 
therefore  very  sensitive  to  sour  or  acid  soil  conditions.  Consequently, 
the  best  alfalfa  soils  in  the  state  are  those  that  have  been  derived  from 
limestone  or  that  contain  in  them  a  large  quantity  of  calcarous  material. 

Alfalfa  is  not  exacting  as  to  the  texture  of  soil  upon  which  it  will 
grow,  yet  it  does  the  best  upon  the  loam,  silt  loam,  and  sandy  loam  soils. 
While  it  grows  best  on  soils  of  this  texture,  it  will  grow  satisfactorily, 
however,  when  once  established  on  heavy  clay  soils,  if  they  are  well 
drained.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of  working  soils  of  this  type  for 
other  crops,  alfalfa  is  often  the  most  profitable  crop  that  can  be  grown 
upon  them.  It  will  also  grow  upon  soils  of  a  fairly  sandy  character. 
The  chief  difficulty  with  the  crop  on  soils  of  this  kind  is  the  uncertainty 
of  securing  a  stand,  but  when  once  established  it  usually  grows  well,  and 
if  supplied  with  a  top-dressing  of  manure  occasionally,  produces  very 
profitable  yields. 

ALFALFA  REGIONS   OF   KANSAS. 

The  state  of  Kansas  can  be  divided  into  four  alfalfa  regions,  based 
partly  upon  the  formation  of  the  soil  and  partly  upon  climatic  conditions. 
The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  201)  shows  these  regions. 

Region  I  is  located  in  the  northeast  corner  of  Kansas,  and  is  com- 
posed of  soils  that  were  formed  by  ice.  It  is  supposed  that  at  one 
time  this  region  was  covered  by  an  immense  glacier  which  moved  down 
from  the  north,  carrying  with  it  rock  and  soil  material  from  the  northern 
states  and  Canada.  This  material  which  was  carried  in  from  the  north 
was  mixed  by  the  ice  with  fragments  of  the  underlying  rock  of  this 
region.  It  is  from  this  mixture  of  rock  material  that  the  soils  of  north- 
eastern Kansas  were  formed. 

Due  to  the  manner  in  which  these  soils  were  formed,  they  are  usually 
deep  and  rich  in  mineral  elements  or  plant  food,  but  deficient  in  organic 
matter.  Because  of  the  deficiency  in  organic  matter,  and  because  the 
mineral  elements  of  plant  food  are  not  in  a  readily  available  condition, 
it  is  often  difficult  to  start  alfalfa  upon  these  soils  unless  they  are 
manured.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  when  alfalfa  is  to  be  started,  to 
manure  the  field  six  months  or  a  year  before  the  crop  is  sown.  Manure 
applied  in  this  way  furnishes  organic  matter,  which,  after  partially  decay- 
ing, will  furnish  the  young  alfalfa  plants  with  plant  food,  especially  nitro- 
gen, that  they  need  during  the  early  stages  of  their  growth,  before  they 
are  able  to  obtain  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere.  In  this  way  a  light 
application  of  manure  assures  a  stand  of  alfalfa  which  otherwise  would 
be  difficult  to'  obtain.  The  soil  in  this  region  often  contains  too  little 
lime  for  the  best  growth  of  alfalfa,  consequently  lime  must  frequently  be 
applied  before  alfalfa  can  be  successfully  grown. 

While  the  soils  of  this  region  are  usually  of  sufficient  depth  to  grow 
alfalfa  well,  they  are  frequently  of  too  impervious  a  nature  to  permit 
the  alfalfa  roots  to  penetrate  the  soil  rapidly,  and  in  some  cases  the 
impervious  layer  of  the  subsoil  holds  water  to  such  an  extent  that  the 


232 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  233 

soils  become  too  poorly  drained  for  alfalfa.  Such  soils  will  not  make  as 
valuable  alfalfa  soils  as  those  which  are  naturally  well  drained,  but  where 
they  are  the  only  soils  available,  alfalfa  can  usually  be  started  by  means 
of  tile  underdrainage. 

Region  II,  located  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  state,  consists 
of  residual  soils — that  is,  soils  which  have  been  formed  from  the  decay 
of  rock  in  place.  The  rock  from  which  the  majority  of  the  soils  in 
this  region  were  formed  was  shale,  although  small  areas  of  soil  formed 
from  sandstone  and  limestone  occur.  Of  these  three  types  of  soil,  the 
limestone  is  by  far  the  best  for  the  growth  of  alfalfa.  Two  kinds  of  lime- 
stone soils  are  found — the  red  limestone  and  the  black  limestone.  The  red 
limestone  soil  is  usually  open,  porous  and  well  drained,  while  the  black 
limestone  soil  is  usually  less  porous,  and  sometimes  so  impervious  that 
drainage  is  poor,  and  thus  not  well  adapted  to  alfalfa.  The  red  limestone 
soils  and  the  well-drained  black  limestone  soils  grow  alfalfa  successfully, 
although  it  is  advisable  to  manure  these  soils  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying plant  food  before  attempting  to  start  alfalfa  upon  them.  Some 
of  these  soils  are  so  shallow  that  they  do  not  furnish  sufficient  root  de- 
velopment for  the  best  growth  of  the  crop.  Where  this  occurs,  yields  are 
usually  small,  sometimes  only  one  good  cutting  of  alfalfa  being  obtained 
in  a  season.  But  even  under  such  conditions  alfalfa  is  usually  the  most 
profitable  crop  that  can  be  grown  upon  them. 

The  sandstone  soils  occupy  areas  of  higher  elevation  than  the  sur- 
rounding shale  soils,  and  because  of  their  location  and  the  material  from 
which  the  soil  has  been  formed,  are  generally  well  drained.  However, 
they  are  often  in  a  low  state  of  fertility  and  will  not  grow  alfalfa  suc- 
cessfully until  after  they 'have  been  fertilized  or  manured.  These  soils 
are  frequently  shallow  and  drouthy,  and  some  of  them  must  be  limed 
before  alfalfa  will  grow  well. 

The  shale  soils  are  the  least  adapted  to  alfalfa  of  any  of  the  soils  in  the 
region.  They  are  poorly  drained,  deficient  in  lime,  often  deficient  in 
organic  matter  and  plant  food,  and  have  such  an  impervious  subsoil  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  for  the  alfalfa  roots  to  penetrate  to  a  suitable 
depth.  Such  soils  should  not  be  utilized  for  alfalfa  where  other  soils, 
such  as  the  limestone  and  sandstone  soils,  occur,  but  where  the  shale  soils 
are  the  only  soils  on  the  farm,  alfalfa  can  usually  be  made  to  grow  if 
the  soil  is  underdrained  and  if  the  field  is  limed  and  manured  before  the 
crop  is  sown.  On  all  of  the  soils  in  southeastern  Kansas,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  stream  valleys,  inoculation  is  necessary,  and  alfalfa  should 
never  be  seeded  unless  inoculation  material  has  been  applied. 

Region  III  constitutes  the  principal  alfalfa-growing  region  of  the 
state.  There  is  undoubtedly  no  equal  area  of  land  in  the  United  States 
that  has  a  larger  portion  of  the  cultivated  land  in  alfalfa.  In  1912,  4.8 
per  cent  of  all  of  the  cultivated  land  in  this  area  was  in  alfalfa,  while  in 
region  I  only  2.5  per  cent  of  the  cultivated  land  was  in  this  crop,  and  in 
region  II  but  .66  per  cent  of  the  cultivated  land  was  seeded  to  alfalfa. 

The  soil  of  this  region  is  well  adapted  to  alfalfa.  Upon  the  whole,  the 
soils  are  deep,  well  supplied  with  lime,  well  drained,  and  there  is  usually 


234  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

ample  rain  for  the  best  development  of  the  crop.  Inoculation  is  seldom 
necessary,  with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  area.  In  this  part 
of  the  region  the  soils  are  more  shallow,  drainage  is  usually  not  as  good, 
lime  is  present  in  smaller  quantities,  and  many  of  the  soils  are  not  well 
enough  supplied  with  available  plant  food  to  grow  alfalfa  well,  but  over 
the  rest  of  the  territory  alfalfa  can  usually  be  successfully  grown  if  a  good 
seed  bed  is  prepared  for  the  crop. 

Region  IV  constitutes  that  part  of  Kansas  where  the  rainfall  is  too 
light  for  alfalfa  to  be  successfully  grown  unless  supplied  by  irrigation, 
flood  or  subsoil  moisture.  Consequently,  practically  no  alfalfa  is  grown 
in  this  region  without  irrigation,  except  on  the  alluvial  bottom  soils, 
where  the  crop  is  supplied  with  subsoil  moisture  or  where  overflow  water 
has  an  opportunity  to  penetrate  the  soil. 

Alfalfa  is  sometimes  utilized  on  the  high  land  of  this  region  for  graz- 
ing, but  seldom  makes  a  profitable  hay  crop.  The  creek  and  river  bottom 
soils  of  this  region  are  well  adapted  to  alfalfa.  The  climate  is  ideal  for 
curing  hay,  consequently  hay  of  the  finest  quality  is  produced.  The 
climatic  conditions  are  also  of  the  best  for  seed  production,  and  it  is  in 
this  region  that  a  large  part  of  the  alfalfa  seed  in  the  state  is  produced. 
(See  "Soil,"  in  index.) 

THE   ALFALFA   SEED   BED. 

A  good  seed  bed  is  the  most  important  factor  in  securing  a  stand  of 
alfalfa,  while  a  poor  seed  bed  is  the  most  frequent  cause  for  failure  in 
starting  the  crop.  A  good  seed  bed  must  be  well  settled,  firm,  and  have 
a  finely  pulverized  and  mellow  surface  in  which  to  sow  the  seed.  A  firm 
seed  bed  is  necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  crop  to  make  the  necessary 
root  development  to  successfully  resist  the  heavy  freezing  weather  of 
the  first  winter,  and  to  permit  of  ready  movement  of  capillary  moisture 
to  the  plants.  In  order  to  secure  a  firm  seed  bed  it  is  necessary  to  start 
the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  the  crop  several  weeks  in  advance  of 
seeding.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  ground  is  plowed.  The  culti- 
vation and  lapse  of  time  between  plowing  and  seeding  not  only  fur- 
nishes time  for  the  proper  settling  of  the  seed  bed,  but  also  enables  the 
bacteria  of  the  soil  to  liberate  plant  food  in  sufficient  quantities  to  start 
the  crop  with  promptness  and  vigor.  When  alfalfa  is  to  be  sown  in  the 
fall,  ground  that  has  previously  grown  wheat  or  some  spring  grain  makes 
the  best  kind  of  a  seed  bed.  The  ground  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as 
possible  after  removing  the  grain  crop.  The  plowing  should  be  com- 
paratively shallow.  In  fact,  if  the  soil  is  turned  just  deep  enough  to 
cover  the  stubble  and  any  weed  growth  that  has  started,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient. It  is  not  desirable  to  plow  deep  in  preparing  a  seed  bed  for  al- 
falfa, for  ordinarily  there  is  not  sufficient  time  after  the  deep  plowing 
is  done  for  the  seed  bed  to  become  firmed  and  well  settled.  Where  the 
field  has  been  plowed  continuously  at  a  shallow  depth,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered advisable  to  plow  deep  before  planting  alfalfa  upon  it,  the  deep 
plowing  should  be  done  for  the  crop  which  precedes  alfalfa  rather  than 
in  advance  of  alfalfa  itself.  After  the  field  has  been  plowed  it  should 
be  cultivated  sufficiently  to  keep  down  weed  growth,  to  firm  the  soil,  and 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  235 

to  produce  a  fine,  mellow  surface.  If  several  heavy  rains  fall  after  the 
ground  has  been  plowed  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  use  a  roller  or  packer 
in  preparing  the  seed  bed,  but  should  the  weather  following  the  plowing 
remain  dry  it  is  usually  advisable  to  roll  or  pack  the  ground,  both  for 
the  purpose  of  firming  the  seed  bed  and  of  pulverizing  the  clods  which 
would  otherwise  interfere  with  the  seeding  of  the  crop.  On  good,  clean 
ground,  a  satisfactory  seed  bed  can  often  be  prepared  with  the  disk.  In 
fact,  if  the  plowing  can  not  be  done  reasonably  early  in  the  summer, 
disked  ground  will  usually  make  a  better  seed  bed  for  alfalfa  than 
ground  that  has  been  plowed  late.  While  wheat  or  spring  grain  stubble 
usually  makes  the  best  seed  bed  for  alfalfa,  the  crop  can  often  be  seeded 
with  success  following  cowpeas,  flax,  millet  or  corn.  When  seeded  after 
a  crop  of  this  kind,  which  is  harvested  late  in  the  summer,  a  better  seed 
bed  can  be  prepared  with  the  disk  than  with  the  plow.  Ordinarily,  a 
single  or  double  disking,  followed  by  the  harrow,  will  put  the  ground  in 
condition  for  the  alfalfa  seed. 

It  is  customary  in  western  Kansas  and  in  some  sections  of  eastern 
Kansas  to  sow  alfalfa  in  the  spr-ing.  This  is  the  best  time  to  sow  alfalfa 
in  western  Kansas,  because  the  fall  is  either  too  dry  to  start  the  crop, 
or  grasshoppers  are  so  numerous  that  the  young  plants  are  destroyed 
by  these  insects.  The  best  seed  bed  for  spring  seeding  can  be  secured 
by  plowing  the  ground  the  fall  preceding,  leaving  it  rough  over  winter, 
and  then  working  it  into  good  seed-bed  condition  with  the  disk  and 
harrow.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  alfalfa  should  be  sown  as 
soon  as  danger  of  severe  freezing  weather  is  past,  but  in  the  western 
part  it  is  best  to  delay  seeding  until  the  spring  rains  start  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  soil  blowing. 

Another  satisfactory  method  of  preparing  a  seed  bed,  and  one  that  is 
adapted  to  land  that  is  deficient  in  available  plant  food,  or  to  parts  of 
the  state  where  conditions  are  too  dry  to  start  alfalfa  readily,  is  to  plow 
the  land  in  the  fall  or  spring  and  cultivate  it  sufficiently  thereafter  to  kill 
the  weeds  and  maintain  a  soil  mulch.  In  western  Kansas  the  alfalfa 
seeded  after  this  plan  had  best  be  sown  late  in  the  spring,  while 
in  eastern  Kansas  the  ground  should  be  cultivated  throughout  the 
summer  and  the  alfalfa  seeded  in  the  fall.  Soil  that  is  kept  cul- 
tivated over  a  long  period  of  time  in  this  way  is  free  of  weed  seeds  and 
accumulates  a  reserve  of  available  plant  food  and  moisture.  With 
favorable  weather  conditions  thereafter,  a  stand  of  alfalfa  will  be  se- 
cured on  soil  so  infertile  or  foul  with  weeds  that  difficulty  is  ordinarily 
experienced  in  starting  the  crop.  (See  "Seed-bed  Preparation,"  in  index.) 

SEEDING. 

Time  to  Plant  Alfalfa. 

In  the  eastern  two-thirds  of  Kansas  alfalfa  can  be  started  as  easily, 
and  often  more  easily,  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring.  When  the  crop  can 
be  started  in  the  fall,  one  year's  crop  is  usually  saved.  As  an  example  of 
this,  two  fields  were  seeded  to  alfalfa  on  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College  farm  in  1914.  One  field  was  seeded  in  the  spring,  following  corn, 
while  the  other  field  was  seeded  in  the  fall,  following  wheat.  The  field 


236  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

sown  in  the  spring  made  a  good  stand,  but  did  not  produce  a  hay  crop 
the  first  season,  while  the  field  that  was  in  wheat  produced  forty  bushels 
of  grain  to  the  acre,  and  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  was  secured  following 
the  wheat.  This  season  (1915)  the  field  sown  in  the  fall  has  produced 
within  a  ton  as  much  hay  as  the  field  sown  in  the  spring.  Thus,  the 
wheat  crop  grown  in  1914  preceding  alfalfa  was  secured  without  sac- 
rificing to  any  great  extent  the  alfalfa  crop  this  season.  (See  "Seeding," 
in  index.) 

In  sections  of  Kansas  where  the  rainfall  is  usually  abundant  in  the 
spring,  satisfactory  stands  are  sometimes  obtained  by  planting  alfalfa 
with  a  nurse  crop,  such  as  oats,  barley,  or  even  by  spring  planting  in 
winter  wheat.  The  nurse  crop  should  be  planted  thinner  than  when  it  is 
planted  alone,  and  if  the  season  turns  dry,  should,  in  order  to  save  the 
alfalfa,  be  cut  early  for  hay.  This  method  of  planting  alfalfa  is  not 
satisfactory  as  a  rule,  and  is  not  to  be  recommended  except  in  special 
cases.  (See  "Nurse  Crop,"  in  index.) 

Starting  Alfalfa  on  Sandy  Soils. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  seed  alfalfa  on  sandy  soils,  especially  along 
the  creek  and  river  valleys.  Such  soils,  if  not  too  sandy,  will  usually 
grow  alfalfa  successfully  after  it  is  once  established.  It  is  difficult  to 
start  the  crop  on  account  of  the  sand  drifting  in  high  winds  and  cutting 
off  the  young  alfalfa  plants.  A  number  of  farmers  along  the  Arkansas 
river  valley  have  succeeded  in  starting  alfalfa  on  soils  of  this  character 
by  preceding  the  alfalfa  with  sown  sweet  sorghum  or  cane.  The  cane 
is  cut  in  th  fall  for  hay  in  such  a  way  that  the  stubble  is  left  high.  The 
next  spring,  after  danger  of  high  winds  is  past  and  when  spring  rains 
start,  the  alfalfa  is  drilled  in  the  cane  stubble,  which  is  left  standing 
to  protect  the  young  alfalfa  plants.  In  this  way  good  stands  of  alfalfa 
have  been  secured  on  soils  too  sandy  otherwise  to  grow  the  crop.  Old 
fields  of  alfalfa  on  soils  of  this  character  should  usually  be  allowed  to 
make  some  growth  in  the  fall  to  protect  the  crown  of  the  plant  during 
winter  and  the  following  spring.  Light  applications  of  barnyard  manure 
applied  in  the  winter  also  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  crop  and  supply 
plant  food  and  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  which  eventually  is  beneficial 
to  the  alfalfa. 

INOCULATING  FOR  ALFALFA. 

Alfalfa  requires  for  its  growth  large  quantities  of  nitrogen.  It  is  this 
large  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  plant  that  makes  the  crop  so  rich  in  pro- 
tein and,  therefore,  such  a  valuable  feed.  Most  soil  can  not  supply  from 
the  soil  itself  the  large  quantity  of  nitrogen  that  the  crop  requires. 
Fortunately,  alfalfa  is  not  usually  dependent  upon  the  soil  for  its  supply 
of  nitrogen.  There  are  tiny  bacteria  that  live  in  nodules  upon  the  roots 
of  the  alfalfa  plants  that  secure  nitrogen  from  the  inexhaustible  supply  of 
this  material  in  the  air.  The  nitrogen  gathered  in  this  way  is  used  by  the 
bacteria  in  their  life  processes,  but  is  eventually  given  off  by  these  organ- 
isms in  such  a  way  that  it  is  available  to  the  alfalfa  plants.  Very  few 
soils  are  rich  enough  in  nitrogen  to  grow  alfalfa  without  the  aid  of  these 
bacteria,  consequently,  when  the  alfalfa  bacteria  are  not  present  in  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  237 

soil,  the  crop  if  planted  turns  sickly  and  yellow  at  the  end  of  the  first 
or  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  its  growth,  and  eventually  dies  or  thins 
out  until  it  is  an  unprofitable  crop  to  leave.  Alfalfa  bacteria  are  usually 
present  in  overflow  land  along  creeks  and  rivers  and  in  the  soils  of  the 
central  and  western  parts  of  the  state,  but  in  eastern  Kansas,  where  al- 
falfa has  not  been  extensively  grown,  the  bacteria  are  not  present  in  the 
soil  and  inoculation  is  necessary  except  on  bottom  soils. 

There  are  two  common  ways  of  inoculating  soil  with  alfalfa  nitrogen- 
gathering  bacteria.  One  way  is  to  use  soil  from  alfalfa  or  sweet-clover 
fields,  the  other  to  use  pure  cultures  of  these  bacteria.  Almost  any  seed 
house  can  supply  the  pure  cultures  of  these  organisms,  and  if  the  di- 
rections are  followed  closely  in  using  the  cultures,  good  results  are  usually 
obtained.  The  soil  method  of  inoculation  is  the  surest,  safest,  and  gener- 
ally the  best  method  to  follow.  An  old  field  of  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover 
should  be  found  that  is  well  set  with  nodules.  The  surface  inch  of  soil 
should  be  scooped  off  and  the  next  four  or  five  inches  of  soil  taken  for 
inoculating  purposes.  This  soil  should  be  broadcasted,  without  drying, 
as  soon  as  possible  over  the  field  to  be  inoculated.  The  work  should  be 
done  on  a  cloudy  day  if  possible,  and  the  soil  harrowed-in  immediately 
after  it  is  scattered.  From  300  to  500  pounds  of  soil  applied  to  each  acre 
will  usually  be  sufficient  to  produce  inoculation,  and  will  often  mean  a 
successful  stand  of  alfalfa  when  neglect  to  inoculate  may  mean  failure. 
(See  "Inoculation,"  in  index.) 

LIMING  FOR  ALFALFA. 

Acid  soils  or  soils  deficient  in  lime  will  not  grow  alfalfa  successfully. 
The  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  will  not  thrive  under  acid  soil  conditions, 
consequently  when  alfalfa  is  seeded  on  acid  soils  it  can  not  obtain  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  and  thus  can  not  make  a  satisfactory  growth.  It  is  not  an 
easy  matter  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  soil  is  in  need  of  lime.  There 
are  practically  no  acid  soils  in  the  western  four-fifths  of  Kansas,  but  in 
the  eastern  one-fifth  of  the  state  large  areas  of  acid  soils  occur,  and  it 
is  advisable  in  this  section  of  the  state  to  have  the  soil  tested  for  acidity 
before  seeding  the  crop.  The  best  plan  is  to  send  a  sample  of  soil  which 
is  representative  of  the  field  to  the  Agricultural  College  at  Manhattan 
for  the  purpose  of  having  the  soil  examined.  If  the  soil  is  found  to  be 
acid  the  acid  condition  can  be  corrected  by  applying  ground  limestone, 
hydrated  lime  or  air-slaked  lime.  Ground  limestone  is  usually  the  cheap- 
est form  in  which  to  apply  the  lime.  An  application  of  from  one  to  three 
tons  should  be  made  to  the  acre.  The  lime  should  be  applied  after  plow- 
ing. The  limestone  applied  should  be  finely  ground  and  thoroughly 
worked  into  the  soil  with  a  disk  and  harrow.  Where  a  large  area  is  to 
be  covered  with  lime,  a  lime  spreader  is  needed,  but  a  small  quantity  can 
be  spread  satisfactorily  by  hand  with  a  shovel,  or  a  manure  spreader 
may  be  used.  When  a  manure  spreader  is  used  the  bottom  of  the  spreader 
should  be  covered  with  manure  or  fine  straw  and  the  lime  placed  on  top 
at  the  proper  thickness  for  the  spreader  to  spread  the  quantity  of  lime 
desired.  (See  "Lime,"  in  index.) 


238 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


MANURING   FOR  ALFALFA. 

There  is  no  crop  grown  in  Kansas  that  responds  more  quickly  to  barn- 
yard manure  than  alfalfa,  or  upon  which  it  is  safer  to  apply  manure 
without  danger  of  its  reducing  the  yield  of  a  crop  in  a  dry  season.  While 
manure  is  beneficial  when  applied  to  an  old-established  stand  of  alfalfa, 
it  can  be  applied  with  the  greatest  benefit  in  advance  of  seeding  the  crop. 
Young  alfalfa  plants  require  large  quantities  of  plant  food  for  their 
growth,  and  unlike  the  older  plants,  which  are  able  to  secure  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  the  young  plants  must  be  supplied  with  nitrogen  from  the 
soil  until  the  plant  becomes  inoculated  with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  which 
does  not  take  place  until  the  plant  is  several  weeks  old.  Barnyard  ma- 
nure, if  applied  long  enough  in  advance  of  seeding  to  have  practically 
rotted,  will  supply  the  young  plants  with  the  nitrogen  they  require  and 
often  insures  a  stand  of  alfalfa  on  soils  low  in  fertility  upon  which  al- 
falfa would  otherwise  fail. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  alfalfa  will  restore  the  fertility  of  im- 
poverished soils  if  once  established  upon  them.  While  it  is  true  that 
alfalfa  will  do  better  than  most  other  crops  on  soils  of  this  character, 
and  will  gradually  enrich  soils  of  this  kind  in  nitrogen,  it  is  nevertheless 
true  that  such  soils  can  not  be  made  very  productive  until  the  soil  is 
manured  or  fertilized. 

In  1910  a  series  of  experiments  with  manures  and  fertilizers  was 
started  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  at  Manhattan.  A  number  of 
plats  of  ground  was  seeded  to  alfalfa  that  season,  and  have  been  in 
alfalfa  continuously  since  that  time.  The  soil  upon  which  the  work  was 
started  was  a  very  poor  one — in  fact,  the  field  is  more  or  less  rolling  and 
the  soil  was  somewhat  eroded.  Upon  these  plats  manure  has  been  applied 
annually  at  the  rate  of  2%  tons  to  the  acre,  or  a  total  of  12^  tons  of 
manure  applied  during  the  past  five  years.  One  of  these  plats  receiving 
manure  received  also  an  annual  application  of  380  pounds  of  raw  rock 
phosphate,  which  cost  $2.08  for  the  quantity  applied.  Another  plat  re- 
ceived 1000  pounds  of  lime  in  1910  and  the  same  quantity  in  1914.  The 
third  plat  received  barnyard  manure  only.  Another  plat  was  manured 
annually  at  the  rate  of  5  tons,  or  has  received  during  the  five  years  a 
total  of  25  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre.  Other  plats  left  as  checks  were 
unmanured.  In  1911  the  alfalfa  winterkilled  and  was  reseeded  in  the 
spring  of  1912.  The  yield  of  alfalfa  obtained  during  the  past  five  years 
is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


TABLE  No.  25. 


Effect  of  barnyard  manure  on  alfalfa.    Manure  applied  annually, 
1911-1915.     Yield  in  pounds. 


Plat. 

Treatment. 

1911. 

1912. 

1913. 

1914. 

1915.* 

Average 
yield. 

7 

Manure,  2^  tons, 
rock  phosphate  

4,649 

1,800 

3,724 

4,323 

8,834 

4,666 

9 

Manure,  2^  tons  

3,659 

1,620 

3,041 

4,342 

8,537 

4,239 

10 

Manure,  5  tons  

3,805 

1,920 

4,366 

5,418 

10,050 

5,112 

12 

Manure,  2J^  tons,  and  lime.  .  . 

3,463 

1,680 

3,491 

4,640 

8,964 

4,447 

Check 

No  treatment  

2,463 

820 

1,901 

2,330 

4,409 

2,384 

*  First  three  cuttings  only.    Data  compiled  before  fourth  crop  was  harvested. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


239 


240 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


The  plat  fertilized  with  2%  tons  of  manure  annually,  produced  an 
average  yield  of  4239  pounds  of  hay;  and  the  plat  fertilized  with  5  tons 
of  manure  annually,  produced  an  average  yield  of  5112  pounds  of  hay; 
while  the  unfertilized  plat  produced  an  average  of  but  2384  pounds  of 
hay  to  the  acre.  An  application  of  2V2  tons  of  manure  increased  the 
yield  1855  pounds  per  acre  annually,  or  77  per  cent,  while  an  annual  ap- 
plication of  5  tons  of  manure  increased  the  yield  2728  pounds,  or  114  per 
cent.  The  heavier  application  of  manure  gave  the  biggest  increase  in 
yield,  and  would  have  been  the  most  profitable  if  a  large  quantity  of 
manure  had  been  available  for  use,  but  where  manure  is  limited  in  amount 
it  is  better  to  apply  at  the  lighter  rate  and  to  cover  a  larger  area.  This  is 
readily  seen  when  we  see  that  the  2% -ton  rate  of  application  increased  the 
yield  1855  pounds  per  acre  over  the  unmanured  plat,  while  the  5-ton  rate 
of  application  increased  the  yield  but  873  pounds  over  the  2%  -ton  ma- 
nured plat.  In  other  words,  the  first  application  of  2%  tons  of  manure 
increased  the  yield  1855  pounds,  while  the  second  2V2  tons  of  manure  in- 
creased the  yield  but  873  pounds. 

Rock  phosphate  applied  at  the  rate  of  380  pounds  per  acre  annually 
with  2  V2  tons  of  manure,  costing  $2  for  the  rock  phosphate,  increased  the 
yield  but  427  pounds  per  acre,  which  is  not  a  sufficient  increase  in  yield  to 
make  its  application  profitable.  Ground  lime  rock  applied  at  the  rate  of 
1000  pounds  every  four  years  on  a  plat  receiving  2%  tons  of  manure  in- 
creased the  yield  of  hay  208  pounds  per  acre  annually.  This  is  not  a 
sufficient  increase  to  make  the  use  of  lime  profitable. 

COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS   FOR  ALFALFA. 

When  barnyard  manure  is  not  available,  some  commercial  fertilizer 
rich  in  phosphorus,  such  as  bone  meal  or  acid  phosphate,  can  usually  be 
used  with  profit  in  starting  alfalfa  on  the  poorer  areas  of  soil  in  the 
eastern  third  of  the  state.  At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  alfalfa 
was  seeded  on  a  poor  upland  field  in  the  fall  of  1909.  Upon  one  plat  in 
this  field  the  alfalfa  was  fertilized  with  190  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
per  acre  each  year.  This  quantity  of  acid  phosphate  supplied  fourteen 
pounds  of  phosphorus  annually,  and  cost  $2  per  acre.  Another  plat  ad- 
joining was  unfertilized.  The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  this 
trial: 

TABLE  No.  26.     Effect  of  phosphorus  applied  in  add  phosphate  on  alfalfa.     Season  1910-1913. 


Pounds  per  acre. 

Total 
for 
season. 

Value 
at  $10 
per  ton. 

Cost  of 
fer- 
tilizing. 

Value 
less  cost 
of  fer- 
tilizing. 

First 
cutting. 

Second       Third 
cutting,     cutting. 

Fourth 
cutting. 

Yield  of  alfalf  t 

i,   season 

1910. 

Fertilized  .  . 

1,608 

1,608 

$8.04 

$2.09 

$5.95 

Unfertilized 

1,438 

1  438 

7  19 

7  19 

Yiel( 

1  of  alfalf? 

i,    season 

1911. 

Fertilized  .  . 

2,690 

1,080 

900 

1,660 

6,330 

31.65 

2.09 

29.56 

Unfertilized  

2,720 

910 

660 

1,160 

5,450 

27.25 

27.25 

Yield  of  alfalfn 

,   season 

1912. 

Fertilized  

1,780 

1,930 

1,260 

400 

5,370 

16.80 

2.09 

24.76 

Unfertilized  

1,860 

1,470 

960 

200 

4,390 

21.95 

21.95 

Yiel< 

1  of  alfalfa 

,   season 

1913. 

Fertilized  .  . 

3,400 

1,350 

4,750 

23.75 

2.09 

21.66 

Unfertilized  

2,360 

1,000 

3,360 

16.80 

16.80 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  241 

TOTAL,  FOUR  YEARS. 


Fertilized . . . 
Unfertilized . 


Difference . 


Value, 
less  cost  of 
fertilizer. 
$81.93 
73.19 


$8.74 


The  result  of  this  test,  extending  over  a  period  of  four  years,  shows 
each  season  an  increased  yield  of  hay  on  the  fertilized  plat,  and  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  year  the  increase  in  the  crop  was  more  than  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  the  cost  of  fertilizing.  During  the  four  years  the  un- 
fertilized plat  produced  $73.19  worth  of  hay  per  acre,  while  the  plat 
fertilized  produced  $81.93  worth  of  hay,  after  paying  the  cost  of  fertiliz- 
ing, leaving  a  difference  of  $8.74  per  acre,  as  a  total  of  the  four  years, 
in  favor  of  the  fertilized  plat. 

While  paying  returns  have  been  obtained  where  phosphorus  was  used 
as  a  fertilizer  for  alfalfa,  it  does  not  follow  that  any  kind  or  brand  of 
fertilizer  will  pay.  In  this  test  other  plats  fertilized  with  materials 
supplying  potassium  and  nitrogen  did  not  produce  an  increased  yield  suffi- 
cient to  pay  the  cost  of  fertilizing.  From  our  present  knowledge  we 
would  advise  for  alfalfa,  in  this  section  of  the  state,  the  use  of  fertilizer 
supplying  phosphorus  only.  (See  "Fertilizing,"  in  index.) 


SCIENTIFIC  HAY  MAKING  AND  STORAGE. 

By  R.  KENNEY,  Assistant  Professor  of  Crops,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 
CUTTING  THE   CROP. 

During  the  first  season  of  its  growth  the  alfalfa  plant  is  establishing 
a  deep  root  system  which  will  furnish  the  food  and  moisture  necessary 
for  the  enormous  quantities  of  hay  removed  during  succeeding  years.  It 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  all  conditions  shall  be  made  favorable 
for  the  development  of  this  root  system.  It  depends  almost  entirely  on 
the  manufacture  of  suitable  food  in  the  green  leaves  and  stems  abov.e 
ground,  aided  by  sunshine.  The  green  growing  parts  must  be  pro- 
tected as  much  as  possible,  and  any  hay  made  the  first  season  must  be 
cut  and  harvested  at  such  a  stage  and  in  such  a  manner  as  will  do  the 
least  damage  to  young  plants,  irrespective  of  the  quantity  or  quality  of 
hay  obtained.  The  clipping  should  be  delayed  as  long  as  possible  without 
letting  weeds  get  too  much  start.  On  the  other  hand,  no  seed  should  be 
allowed  to  form  during  the  early  growth  of  the  plants,  for  seed  forma- 
tion requires  much  plant  food  which  should  go  to  the  roots.  They  need 
all  they  can  get  to  penetrate  deep  into  the  soil  and  get  ready  for  the 
next  year's  work. 


—9 


242  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Second  and  Third  Years. 

During  the  second  season  the  roots  are  still  enlarging  rapidly,  and  one 
should  not  expect  too  much  of  the  field  if  he  wishes  to  harvest  maximum 
hay  crops  in  succeeding  years. 

It  is  just  as  important  that  the  plants  shall  not  be  robbed  by  close 
clipping  for  hay  during  the  first  year  or  two  of  growth  as  it  is  that  they 
shall  not  be  robbed  by  close  grazing  of  stock  during  the  same  period. 
The  maximum  yield  of  hay  harvested  in  any  one  season  is  usually  ob- 
tained in  either  the  third  or  fourth  season.  After  this  the  yield  gradually 
declines  and  the  plants  suffer  more  and  more  from  competition  with  grass 
and  weeds,  from  fungus  injury,  insects,  and  gophers. 

Factors  to  Consider  in  Cutting  Alfalfa. 

Cattle  relish  alfalfa  hay  best  when  it  is  cut  before  the  period  of  full 
bloom,  while  horses  give  best  results  when  fed  on  hay  at  least  well  out 
in  bloom  and  approaching  nearer  to  maturity.  However,  since  alfalfa 
hay  in  most  cases  does  not  make  up  the  entire  ration  for  horses,  it  may 
be  best  to  consider  other  factors  than  that  of  physiological  effect  on  the 
animals  eating  it. 

Various  criteria  have  been  used  for  deciding  when  it  is  proper  to  cut, 
the  two  most  common  being,  first,  when  the  blossoms  have  reached  a 
certain  stage,  say  one-tenth  bloom  or  full  bloom,  depending  on  the 
preference  of  the  individual;  and  second,  when  the  new  shoots  are 
arising  at  the  crown.  Both  are  excellent  at  times  of  normal  growth,  but 
either  may  fail  under  unusual  conditions. 

When  wet  seasons  occur,  such  as  was  that  of  1915,  alfalfa  does  not 
bloom  readily,  and  the  second  growth  in  many  cases  is  six  to  ten  inches 
high  before  a  single  blossom  appears.  This  condition  is  more  frequent 
in  the  more  humid  states  than  it  is  in  Kansas.  In  such  a  case  it  is  best 
to  depend  on  the  new  growth  arising  at  the  crown  to  decide  when  to  cut. 
In  rare  cases,  flowers  appear  in  considerable  number  before  the  new 
growth  is  noticed,  and  the  forage  may  approach  nearer  maturity  than  is 
desirable  if  one  waits  for  the  new  shoots  to  appear. 

.  It  is  necessary  to  combine  these  two  characters  of  growth  in  making  a 
decision,  and  cut  whenever  one  or  the  other  has  appeared;  i.  e.,  the  new 
growth  should  not  be  high  enough  to  be  cut  off  by  the  sickle,  nor  should 
the  flowers  indicate  greater  maturity  than  is  desired. 

The  time  of  cutting  will  depend  most  largely  on  just  what  stage  of 
maturity  of  the  plant  will  yield  the  most  tons  of  hay  containing  the 
greatest  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  per  ton.  Since  protein  is  the 
most  valuable  food  element  in  alfalfa  hay,  the  protein  contents  of  the 
cured  hay  is  the  determining  factor. 

The  protein  content  of  alfalfa  stems  ranges  from  about  14  per  cent 
in  the  bud  state  to  about  11  per  cent  when  the  first  seeds  are  forming. 
In  the  leaves  it  ranges  from  about  28  per  cent  in  the  bud  stage  to  about 
24  per  cent  in  the  stage  of  seed  formation.  In  the  bud  stage  55  to  66 
per  cent  of  the  hay  is  leaves,  while  in  the  stage  of  seed  formation  only 
40  to  45  per  cent  of  the  hay  is  made  up  of  leaves  alone. 

The  above  figures,  determined  by  the  department  of  chemistry  of  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  243 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  show  that  when  composition  of  hay 
alone  is  considered  the  best  hay  is  that  harvested  at  an  early  stage  of 
maturity.  Work  conducted  by  the  department  of  agronomy  at  the  Agri- 
cultural College  at  Manhattan  shows  an  average  yield  of  less  than  one- 
half  ton  more  of  hay  from  alfalfa  cut  in  the  bud  stage  than  from  ad- 
joining ground  mowed  in  the  one-tenth  bloom  stage  in  1914.  Cutting 
every  time  the  crop  reached  the  bud  stage  required  one  more  mowing, 
raking  and  hauling  than  was  required  for  cutting  in  the  one-tenth  bloom. 
Such  early  cutting  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the  roots,  for  they  can  not 
receive  so  much  food  from  the  green  parts  above  ground.  This  weaken- 
ing results  in  slower  growth  of  succeeding  crops  and  becomes  more 
marked  from  year  to  year.  It  allows  greater  chance  for  fungus  to  be- 
come well  established,  and  does  not  smother  out  crab  grass  and  foxtail 
nearly  so  well  as  does  a  more  vigorous-growing  crop. 

Plats  on  the  Experiment  Station  farm,  which  have  been  cut  every  time 
they  reached  the  bud  stage  during  1914  and  1915,  have  been  almost  com- 
pletely taken  by  crab  grass  and  foxtail  during  the  1915  season.  The 
fourth  cutting  of  hay  was  the  first  to  show  a  noticeable  amount  of  grass. 
It  was  cut  on  August  4,  and  contained  30  per  cent  of  crab  grass  and  fox- 
tail in  the  weight  of  air-dry  material.  The  fifth  cutting  contained  a 
much  larger  per  cent  of  grass,  and  the  alfalfa  was  short,  with  a  very 
thin  stand.  Adjoining  plats  cut  in  the  later  stages  were  either  entirely 
free  from  grass  or  contained  only  a  trace.  Much  alfalfa  in  eastern  Kan- 
sas in  1915  was  completely  taken  by  these  grasses.  Mowing  a  little  later 
and  less  often  may  tend  to  smother  the  young  grass  sprouts  in  such 
cases,  while  frequent  mowing  both  weakens  the  alfalfa  and  gives  the  grass 
air  and  sunshine  for  rapid  growth.  Later  cutting  than  full  bloom  results 
in  a  decided  decrease  in  yield  and  a  hay  crop  made  up  largely  of  unpalat- 
able stems. 

The  greater  portion  of  all  alfalfa  hay  harvested  is  cut  between  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  first  bloom  and  the  full  bloom  stage,  and  the  one-tenth 
bloom  stage  may  be  recommended  as  an  excellent  time  to  cut  hay  for 
ordinary  purposes.  It  must  be  remembered  that  few  fields  are  free  from 
alfalfa  leaf  spot  or  other  fungus  doing  similar  damage  to  the  leaves. 
This  attack  results  in  the  dropping  of  the  leaves,  often  on  three-fourths 
of  the  height  of  the  stem.  It  usually  causes  such  loss  after  the  first  bloom 
and  before  the  full  bloom  is  reached,  so  that  cutting  before  the  leaves 
drop  will  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  hay  provided  they  are  cured 
intact.  (See  "Cutting,"  in  index.) 

CURING  THE  HAY. 

Two  desirable  changes  take  place  in  curing  of  hay,  i.  e.,  the  loss  of 
water  and  the  production  of  aroma.  Both  are  favored  by  slow  curing^ 
while  rapid  curing,  in  addition  to  being  unfavorable  to  them,  results  in 
bleaching  and  loss  of  leaves.  Slow  curing  requires  more  time  and  labor, 
for  the  hay  must  be  raked  and  cocked  at  the  proper  time,  and  most  of  the 
curing  goes  on  in  the  windrow  and  cock. 

Moisture  passes  out  of  the  leaves  more  readily  than  from  the  stems, 
and  they  are  easily  burned  and  bleached  on  a  hot  day.  Proper  slow  cur- 
ing enables  the  moisture  to  be  drawn  from  the  stems  into  the  leaves  and 


244  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

off  from  their  surfaces.  If  the  leaves  are  burned  they  no  longer  draw 
moisture  from  the  stems,  and  they  may  be  so  dry  as  to  drop  off  when 
handled,  while  the  stems  are  far  too  green  to  stack  or  mow.  Such  loss 
of  leaves  may  often  be  considerable.  The  average  loss  in  harvesting 
forty-one  different  lots  of  alfalfa  on  the  agronomy  farm  at  Manhattan 
in  1914  was  12.43  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop.  In  some  cases  as  high  as 
48  per  cent  of  the  leaves  were  lost,  which  resulted  in  a  loss  of  27  per 
cent  of  the  entire  crop.  As  little  as  6  per  cent  loss  of  leaves  and  3  per 
cent  loss  of  total  crop  was  secured  in  several  instances. 

There  can  be  no  certain  rule  made  as  to  how  much  time  should  elapse 
between  cutting,  raking,  cocking,  or  hauling.  Weather  conditions  vary 
greatly.  The  first  crop  of  the  season  is  usually  heavy  and  cut  when 
rains  are  apt  to  occur;  succeeding  crops  are  light  and  harvested  in  good 
drying  weather,  while  the  last  cutting  is  usually  quite  green  and  is 
cut  in  cool  weather  and  is  frequently  difficult  to  cure.  In  midsummer 
alfalfa  may  usually  be  cut  in  the  forenoon,  raked  in  the  afternoon  or 
succeeding  morning,  and  stacked  or  placed  in  the  mow  at  once.  The 
first  cutting  usually  requires  one  or  more  full  days'  curing  in  the  swath, 
and  as  much  or  longer  time  in  the  windrow.  The  tedder  may  frequently 
be  used  with  profit  in  curing  the  first  cutting  when  it  is  tall  and  heavy, 
but  is  seldom  used  in  succeeding  cuttings. 

Alfalfa  wet  with  rain  immediately  after  cutting  will  suffer  little 
damage  if  the  rainfall  is  not  excessive.  Where  rain  falls  after  partial 
curing  the  loss  is  greater,  but  in  few  cases  is  it  so  great  as  to  render  the 
crop  a  total  loss.  The  hay,  of  course,  is  discolored  and  can  not  be  readily 
marketed,  but  it  is  yet  a  good  feed  when  dried  thoroughly  before  stack- 
ing. Much  injury  is  often  done  to  the  new  growth  in  such  cases  because 
the  cut  crop  is  lying  on  the  ground  and  smothering  it.  Spots  are  easily 
killed  out  unless  the  wet  hay  is  turned  and  the  crowns  of  the  plants 
covered  by  the  hay  exposed  to  air  and  sunlight.  (See  "Curing,"  in 
index.) 

STORING. 

Stacking  and  Mowing. 

Good  judgment  is  necessary  in  putting  alfalfa  hay  in  the  stack  or 
mow.  A  mistake  easily  made  is  that  of  stacking  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
are  dry  but  before  the  stems  have  thoroughly  cured.  It  is  very  difficult 
to  say  just  when  hay  is  dry  enough  to  store.  A  slight  excess  of  moisture 
within  the  plant  due  to  the  incomplete  loss  of  natural  sap  will  result  in 
far  less  damage-  in  storage  than  will  a  like  amount  of  moisture  on  the 
outside  of  the  hay,  resulting  from  rain  or  dew. 

The  green  alfalfa  plant  contains  about  75  per  cent  moisture  in  the  bud 
stage.  The  moisture  content  decreases  as  the  plant  matures,  and  may 
be  as  low  as  60  per  cent  when  seeds  are  beginning  to  form.  The  average 
moisture  content  of  field-cured  hay  in  the  above  forty-one  cuttings  in 
1914  was  28.8  per  cent.  The  lowest  was  18.79  per  cent;  the  highest  was 
39.82  per  cent,  and  could  not  have  been  successfully  stacked  or  mowed  in 
large  quantities. 

The  greater  part  of  all  hay  stacked  or  mowed  contains  25  to  30  per  cent 
of  moisture,  and  there  is  danger  of  loss  in  storage  if  there  is  more  than 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


245 


30  per  cent.  After  hay  has  been  stored  long  enough  to  reach  a  constant 
moisture  content  it  contains  8  to  10  per  cent  moisture.  There  is  no  easy 
method  of  determining  the  moisture  content  in  the  field,  and  judgment  is 
based  on  appearance  and  touch.  When  a  few  stems  are  twisted  and 
break  readily,  showing  no  juice  at  the  twisted  portion,  it  is  generally 
safe  to  stack.  However,  if  they  are  tough  and  do  not  twist  apart  easily, 
even  though  no  juice  may  be  forced  out,  there  is  danger  of  loss  if  the  hay 
is  stacked.  This  is  not  a  certain  rule,  but  will  serve  as  a  guide  until 
more  definite  rules  are  established. 

The  greater  portion  of  alfalfa  hay  in  Kansas  is  stored  in  the  stack. 
The  hay  barn  is  used  mostly  on  smaller  farms,  but  a  cheap  shed,  con- 


FIG.  203.    A  cheaply-constructed,  yet  efficient,  alfalfa  hay  barn.. 

sisting  of  a  roof  with  pole  supports  and  boarded  in  along  the  sides  five  or 
six  feet  down  from  the  eaves,  would  be  a  paying  investment  for  many  of 
the  larger  producers.  Such  a  shed  will  turn  off  the  water  which  soaks 
into  alfalfa  hay  very  easily,  and  the  sides  closed  in  at  the  top  prevent  the 
rain  from  blowing  in  as  the  hay  settles.  The  shed  should  be  provided 
with  some  form  of  horse  fork,  and  can  be  filled  as  readily  as  a  stack  can 
be  made. 

Where  alfalfa  is  stacked  there  is  considerable  loss  from  bleaching  and 
weathering.  The  larger  the  stack  the  less  will  be  the  proportionate  loss 
from  such  injury,  and  all  stacks  should  be  made  as  large  as  men  and 
machinery  will  readily  build  them. 

Hay  near  the  bottom  of  a  stack  will  spoil  unless  there  is  some  founda- 
tion to  keep  it  off  the  ground.  Stack  bottoms  are  best  made  of  two  layers 


246  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

of  poles,  or  a  layer  of  poles  covered  with  old  boards.  Old  hay  or  straw 
which  is  thoroughly  dry  may  be  used  where  poles  are  not  at  hand.  The 
top  of  the  stack  should  be  covered  with  canvas,  boards,  or  metal  covers. 
If  nothing  better  can  be  found,  a  load  of  green  alfalfa  spread  over  the 
top  will  serve  very  well.  Slough  grass  or  old  hay  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. (See  "Storing,"  in  index.) 

BALING. 

When  hay  has  been  stacked  or  housed  it  goes  through  the  process  of 
sweating,  which  requires  five  to  eight  weeks.  After  it  has  been  through 
the  sweat  there  is  practically  no  danger  of  heating  in  the  bale,  and  unless 
circumstances  are  unusual,  hay  should  not  be  baled  before  the  process  of 
sweating  is  complete.  Hay  which  is  baled  in  the  field  must  pass  through 
the  sweat  afterward,  and  considerable  loss  is  often  sustained  from  mold- 
ing on  the  edges.  If  sufficient  ventilation  between  all  bales  is  secured  the 
sweating  may  be  prevented,  but  the  quality  of  hay  is  not  as  good  as  that 
which  has  sweated  in  the  mow  or  stack.  Much  dissatisfaction  results  all 
along  the  line  when  the  shipper  puts  hay  on  the  market  direct  from  the 
baler  in  the  field.  Baling  in  the  field  requires  from  one  to  three  days 
longer  curing  than  does  stacking  or  mowing.  The  first  crop  of  the  season 
is  most  difficult  to  handle  in  this  manner,  and  requires  longer  curing  than 
succeeding  cuttings.  It  should  not  be  attempted  while  any  dew  or  rain 
is  remaining  on  the  hay. 

Ownership  of  a  power  press  will  prove  profitable  only  when  a  large 
acreage  is  grown  by  one  individual  or  when  there  is  considerable  hay 
grown  in  one  locality.  Such  a  press  should  bale  20  to  30  tons  a  day.  Un- 
less there  are  at  least  200  tons  to  be  baled,  a  two-horse  press  is  ad- 
visable. 

Bales  should  be  neat,  uniform,  square-ended,  properly  wired,  and  made 
up  of  distinct  layers  of  approximately  the  same  size  and  easily  separable. 
Such  bales  command  a  better  price,  especially  on  a  crowded  market. 
Bales  of  uniform  length  pack  better  in  a  car,  square  ends  tend  to  prevent 
falling  apart,  and  distinct  layers  permit  of  easy  feeding.  In  making  a 
bale  each  feed  should  be  uniform,  and  special  care  should  be  given  the 
start  and  finish  of  a  bale  to  secure  square  ends.  A  receiver  is  always  on 
the  lookout  when  once  he  has  received  a  sandwiched  bale,  and  only  one 
grade  of  hay  should  be  put  in  a  bale.  Great  loss  is  always  sustained  from 
putting  in  bleached  or  burned  hay. 

The  Kansas  City  market  prefers  bales  of  65-  to  75-pound  size,  and 
careful  attention  to  condition  of  bales  is  profitable.  (See  "Baling"  and 
"Marketing,"  in  index.) 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION. 

Hay  which  is  reasonably  well  cured  will  rarely  become  so  hot  as  to 
burn  if  it  has  been  put  up  free  from  dew  or  rain.  Where  part  of  a  heavy 
dew  or  rain  is  still  on  hay  that  was  otherwise  well  cured  there  is  great 
danger  of  spontaneous  combustion  when  large  quantities  are  placed  in  the 
mow  or  stack.  If  it  does  not  actually  burn,  the  middle  of  the  mass  will  be 
browned  or  charred  so  as  to  be  unfit  for  sale.  Stock  will  often  eat  such 
hay  greedily,  but  their  desire  for  it  is  more  in  the  nature  of  a  desire  for  a 
change  of  feed,  and  they  will  not  do  well  when  fed  large  quantities. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  247 

During  the  present  season  many  stacks  have  burned  to  the  ground  as 
the  result  of  stacking  under  unfavorable  weather  conditions  when  much  of 
the  hay  was  too  wet. 

When  such  a  stack  begins  to  heat  there  is  nothing  one  can  do  abso- 
lutely to  prevent  fire.  Opening  the  center  will  only  admit  air,  which 
starts  the  flames  at  once.  Burning  may  often  be  prevented  by  using 
some  means  to  keep  air  away  from  the  heated  portion.  Pouring  water  on 
the  sides,  covering  completely  with  saturated  blankets  and  canvas,  will 
help  on  stacks  which  are  small  enough  to  be  treated  by  such  means. 
Fire  extinguishers  can  do  little  good,  because  they  can  not  reach  the  fire. 
Steam  from  traction  engines  can  not  be  confined  sufficiently  to  help.  As  a 
last  resort,  a  small  portion  of  the  hay  may  be  saved  by  pulling  it  away 
after  the  flames  are  beyond  control.  The  stack  should  never  be  opened, 
however,  until  flames  actually  appear. 

Such  a  loss  will  sufficiently  emphasize  the  advisability  of  thorough 
curing  before  storing  alfalfa  hay. 

SALTING  AND   LIMING   HAY. 

Sprinkling  each  load  with  salt  or  lime  as  it  is  put  down  is  frequently 
done  to  prevent  heating.  There  is  not  sufficient  accurate  information  at 
hand  to  say  that  such  practice  is  worth  while.  Lime  does  not  improve 
the  quality  of  hay  for  feeding  purposes,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  either  salt 
or  lime  have  any  value  in  the  prevention  of  heating. 

Either  of  them  will  prevent  the  growth  of  molds  if  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  but  when  enough  for  such  a  purpose  is  added  the  feeding 
value  of  the  hay  is  greatly  reduced.  (See  "Spontaneous  Combustion"  and 
"Molding,"  in  index.) 


A  DAY'S  WORK  IN  HAYING. 

From  "Weekly  News  Letter  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

In  order  that  haying  or  any  other  farm  work  may  be  planned  in  ad- 
vance or  performed  properly  from  season  to  season,  it  is  essential  to 
know  what  may  fairly  be  expected  daily  of  a  workman  for  each  kind  of 
work.  It  is  also  necessary  to  know  .what  may  be  expected  from  any 
kind  and  size  of  implement,  from  each  horse  or  team,  or  other  source  of 
power.  Finally,  it  is  important  to  know  how  much  should  be  accom- 
plished by  different-sized  groups  of  workmen  working  with  different 
machinery,  power  and  tools.  With  such  knowledge  at  hand,  the  farmer 
can  with  fair  accuracy  assign  a  given  number  of  days  as  being  neces- 
sary to  handle  a  given  acreage  of  a  crop,  and  can,  therefore,  arrange 
to  have  the  work  done  systematically  and  without  pressure  that  may 
call  for  the  sudden  employment  of  extra  teams  or  the  hiring  of  emer- 
gency help.  In  any  such  calculations,  of  course,  the  farmer's  plans  may 
be  upset  by  weather  which  prevents  the  carrying  on  of  operations,  but  in 
each  locality  the  average  weather  conditions  are  fairly  well  known  and 
are  taken  into  account  in  planning  the  work  in  the  field. 

The  Office  of  Farm  Management  of  the  department,  with  the  object 
of  getting  definite  information  with  regard  to  how  much  work  could  be 
expected  in  the  different  haying  operations,  as  well  as  in  other  field 


248 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


operations,  wrote  to  25,000  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  asking 
them  to  report  on  the  work  accomplished  by  their  men,  horses,  plowing 
machinery  and  equipment.  In  addition,  representatives  of  the  depart- 
ment went  into  the  field  and  timed  crews  at  work.  The  returns  were 
then  averaged  and  figures  obtained  for  a  day's  work  in  many  kinds  of 
operations.  These  figures  as  averages  represent  neither  a  minimum 
nor  a  maximum  that  can  be  expected  of  an  individual  worker  who  may 
be  unusually  skilled  and  energetic,  or  may  be  unskilled  and  not  a  quick 
worker.  Moreover,  because  a  great  bulk  of  replies  were  from  states 
where  climate,  soil  and  farming  conditions  are  a  little  better  than  the 
average,  the  investigators  felt  that  the  actual  average  was  possibly  too 
high  for  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  therefore  gave  in  addition  what  is 
called  an  adjusted  figure,  which  probably  represents  more  nearly  the 
amount  of  work  that  might  normally  be  set  as  a  standard.  Following 
are  the  averages  and  the  adjusted  figures  for  the  various  haying  opera- 
tions : 

MOWING,   RAKING,   TEDDING,   AND   COCKING. 

TABLE  No.  27.     What  constitutes  a  normal  day's  work  in  mowing,  raking,  tedding,  and  cocking 

hay,  giving  the  average  acreages  reported  for  sizes  of  machines  most  frequently  used. 
[Net  hours  in  the  field:  For  mowing,  9.52;  for  raking,  8.44;  for  tedding,  8.26;  and  for  cocking,  9.12] 


OPERATION. 

Most 
common 
width. 

Number 
of  horses. 

Acreage 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Mowing  

Feet. 
5 

2 

8.85 

8.0 

Raking 

8 

1 

11.99 

10.8 

Tedding  

10 
6 

2 
1 

17.91 
9.75 

17.0 
8.7 

Cocking  (1  man)  

10 

2 

15.88 
6.29 

14.3 

5.7 

The  adjusted  acreage  figures  given  are  the  investigators'  computa- 
tion of  a  fair  average  after  discounting  abnormal  performances  and  tak- 
ing into  account  the  unusual  work  done  on  farms  which  afford  especially 
good  working  conditions. 

In  mowing  hay,  the  two-horse  unit  is  practically  universal.  The  limit 
of  mechanical  efficiency  appears  to  be  approached  as  the  sickle  reaches 
seven  feet  in  width.  It  appears  that  a  two-horse  team  is  about  45  per 
cent  more  efficient  than  one  horse  when  used  with  rakes  of  the  widths  re- 
ported. The  eight-foot  width  is  the  most  used  with  one  horse  and  the 
ten-foot  width  with  two  horses.  In  tedding  hay  with  a  hay  tedder  or 
kicker,  two  horses  appear  to  be  45  per  cent  more  efficient  than  one. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


249 


HAULING  HAY  FROM  WINDROWS  TO  BARN  WITH  A  HAY  LOADER. 

TABLE  No.  28.     A  normal  day's  work  in  hauling  hay  from  windrows  to  barn  with  a  hay  loader, 
giving  average  acreages  reported  for  crews  most  frequently  used. 
[Net  hours  in  the  field,  9.53.] 


NUMBER  OF  MEN. 

Number 
of  horses. 

Unloading  by 
hand. 

Unloading  with 
sling  or  fork. 

Acreage 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Acreage 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Two  

2 
4 
2 
4 
4 
6 

5.29 
6.50 
5.86 
7.05 
7.81 
7.66 

4.25 
5.20 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

7.66 
6.62 
'7.84 
8.98 
10.16 
10.37 

6.15 
7.30 
6.70 
7.90 
9.15 
10.25 

Three 

Four  . 

HAULING   HAY  FROM   COCKS   TO   BARN. 

TABLE  No.  29.     A  normal  day's  work  in  hauling  hay  from  cocks  to  barn,  giving  the  daily  average 

quoted  for  the  crews  most  frequently  used. 

[Net  hours  in  the  field  9.38.] 


NUMBER  OF  MEN. 

Number 
of  horses. 

Unloading  by 
hand. 

Unloading  with 
sling  or  fork. 

Acreage 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Acreage 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Two  
Three 

2 
4 
2 
4 
4 
6 
4 
6 
4 
6 
8 

4.39 
5.30 
4.55 
6.14 
7.17 
9.33 
7.70 
9.71 
8.03 
9.11 
5.00 

3.50 
4.30 
3.90 
4.75 
6.45 
7.25 
7.70 
8.66 
8.80 
9.85 
10.80 

6.14 
7.94 
6.44 
8.16 
10.14 
14.25 
10.70 
12.33 
10.52 
11.53 
11.60 

4.90 
6.10 
5.50 
6.65 
9.10 
10.25 
10.70 
11.90 
12.45 
13.60 
14.80 

Four 

Five 

Six  

The  hay  fork  and  sling  add  from  30  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  crews  in  this  work.  It  was  also  found  that  those  who 
used  hay  loaders  and  hauled  hay  direct  from  the  field  can  put  away 
about  one-third  of  an  acre  more  daily  per  man  than  those  who  haul  it 
from  cocks,  other  conditions  being  equal.  With  hay  loaders  the  opera- 
tion of  bunching  and  cocking  is  also  eliminated.  In  hauling  hay  from 
cocks  to  barn  41  per  cent  of  the  farmers  reporting  used  two  men,  40  per 
cent  used  three  men,  and  19  per  cent  used  larger  crews.  Seventy-three 
per  cent  used  only  two  horses  and  19  per  cent  used  four.  Although 
three-men  crews  seemed  to  be  much  less  efficient  from  the  standpoint  of 
acres  cleared  in  a  day  than  two-  and  four-men  crews,  nearly  as  many 
farmers  report  three-men  crews  as  two-men  crews. 


250 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


STACKING   IN   THE   FIELD. 

TABLE  No.  30.     A  normal  day's  work  in  stacking  hay  in  the  field  with  and  without  sweep  rakes. 
[Net  hours  in  the  field,  9.70.] 


NUMBER  OF  MEN. 

Using  sweep  rakes. 

Without  sweep  rakes  (by  hand). 

Number 
of  horses. 

Stacked 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Number 
of  horses. 

Stacked 
per  day. 

Adjusted 
acreage. 

Two 

2 
4 
2 
4 
6 
2 
4 
6 
4 
6 
8 
6 
8 

Acres. 
9.70 
13.75 
9.77 
15.48 
14.55 
11.32 
15.22 
18.75 
12.80 
19.70 
23.50 
24.66 
20.33 

6.10 

9.20 
7.80 
10.90 
13.80 
9.40 
12.20 
15.00 
12.90 
15.80 
18.60 
18.20 
20.40 

2 

4 
2 
4 

'"2"' 

4 
6 
2 
4 
6 
4 
6 
8 

Acres. 
4.85 

'"s'.ss" 

8.03 

'"s'so" 

9.52 
14.06 
9.00 
9.37 
12.50 
7.50 
12.20 
10.00 

3.90 
5.90 
5.10 
7.15 

'"e'.eo" 

8.90 
11.20 
7.40 
9.60 
11.90 
11.20 
13.00 
14.80 

Three 

Four  

Five  
Six       

Comparison  of  the  results  attained  in  haying  with  sweep  rakes  and 
without  them  shows  an  advantage  in  favor  of  this  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive addition  to  the  equipment  of  about  40  per  cent.  Much  of  the  cost 
of  raking  and  cocking  is  also  eliminated.  An  analysis  of  the  data  also 
shows  a  decreasing  efficiency  per  man  and  per  horse  as  the  crews  become 
larger.  Thirty-two  per  cent  of  farmers  use  a  crew  of  four  men,  and 
about  equal  numbers  use  three-  and  five-men  crews,  while  only  9  per 
cent  undertake  this  operation  with  two  men.  Different-sized  teams  up  to 
six  horses  are  equally  common. 

BALING   HAY. 

TABLE  No.  31.     A  normal  day's  work  in  baling  hay  from  the  stack  or  barn  with  sweep  power 

and  with  an  engine. 

USING  HORSEPOWER. 
[Net  hours  at  work,  10.10.] 


TYPE  OF  BALER. 

Number 
of  men. 

Baled 
per  day. 

2 

Tons. 
3.6 

3 

4 
5 
2 

7.2 
9.1 
12.5 
10.0 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

8.6 
9.6 
10.7 
10.9 
15.5 
15.5 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 

USING  GASOLINE  ENGINE. 


251 


NUMBER  OP  MEN. 

Horsepower 
of  engine. 

Baled 
per  day. 

Three                 

5.44 

Tons. 
13.56 

Four                                 

6.28 

10.63 

8  29 

13  20 

Six                              

10.41 

16.26 

Seven                                       

12.09 

20  17 

Eight                    

12.53 

20.29 

Nine                                 

16.00 

26.66 

Ten                 

11.90 

27.50 

Eleven  

14.00 

31.25 

HAY  SHEDS. 

By  A.  M.  TEN  EYCK, 

Formerly  Professor  of  Agronomy  and  Farm  Management  at  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College,  and  Superintendent  of  the  Fort  Hays  Branch  Experiment  Station. 

By  carefully  stacking  hay  and  covering  the  stacks  well  it  is  possible 
to  preserve  the  hay  in  large  stacks  with  comparatively  little  loss.  How- 
ever, haying  time  is  a  hard-working,  busy  time  with  the  farmer,  and  he 
may  be  careless  and  neglect  to  stack  the  hay  well  or  cover  the  stacks 
properly.  Rains  will  come  sometimes  when  they  are  not  wanted  and 
least  expected,  and  some  stacks  will  blow  over  or  wet  in,  so  that  on  the 
average  stacking  out  of  doors  is  expensive  and  wasteful. 

When  alfalfa  is  put  up  in  a  large  way  with  sweep  rakes  and  stackers, 
stacking  in  the  field  seems  to  be  about  the  only  practical  method;  but  on 
the  average  farm,  where  the  hay  is  largely  fed  to  live  stock,  the  hay 
shed  becomes  a  hay-saver,  a  labor-saver,  and  a  profitable  investment. 
Some  farmers  who  have  built  sheds  estimate  that  the  saving  of  hay  and 
labor  will  pay  for  the  shed  in  two  years.  This  may  be  figuring  the 
value  of  shedding  hay  a  little  too  high. 

From  experiment  station  reports,  and  from  the  experiences  of  farm- 
ers, the  writer  concludes  that  the  ordinary  loss  on  hay  stored  in  a  shed 
will  be,  on  the  average,  10  per  cent  less  than  on  hay  stacked  out  of  doors. 
A  shed  large  enough  to  store  70  tons  of  alfalfa  will  cost  about  $420.  The 
value  of  10  per  cent  of  70  tons  of  alfalfa  hay,  valued  at  $10  per  ton,  is 
$70.  If  the  hay  is  stacked  it  must,  as  a  rule,  be  handled  twice  in  feeding 
it,  while  if  stored  in  the  shed  or  barn  one  handling  may  get  it  to  the 
live  stock.  The  extra  handling  of  the  hay  will  cost  at  least  50  cents  per 
ton,  or  $35.  Again,  many  leaves  are  shattered  by  the  extra  handling, 
which  may  easily  reduce  the  feeding  value  of  the  hay  50  cents  per  ton, 
which  makes  another  loss  of  $35.  The  shed  would  save*$140  a  year.  At 
this  rate  the  original  cost  of  the  shed  will  have  been  paid  for  in  three 
years,  and  a  good  shed  ought  to  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

On  a  stock  farm  it  will  usually  be  advisable  to  build  a  combination  hay 
and  feeding  shed.  This  may  consist  simply  of  a  main  shed  for  hay 
with  lean-tos  for  the  stock.  Feeding  mangers  should  surround  the  sides 
of  the  hay  shed,  into  which  the  hay  may  be  thrown.  The  lean-tos  may 
be  closed  or  open  at  the  ends  as  desired. 


254 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Forty-eight  to  60  feet  long,  24  feet  wide  and  16  feet  to  the  eaves  are 
good  dimensions  for  a  single  shed,  and  a  shed  60  by  24  by  16  feet  should 
hold  about  60  tons  of  well-settled  hay,  or  the  annual  crop  from  12  to  15 
acres  of  good  alfalfa  land.  A  pair  of  such  sheds  may  be  built  end  to 
end  with  a  driveway  between  them,  the  roof  being  continuous.  The  hay 
should  be  taken  in  at  the  end  of  each  shed  by  a  hay  fork  and  carrier. 

A  hay  shed  should  be  well  braced  and  strongly  constructed.  The 
system  of  long  bracing,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures, 
gives  great  rigidity  and  strength,  and  is  much  preferable  to  the  method 
of  short  bracing  commonly  practiced.  The  short  braces  readily  work 
loose,  and  the  shed  soon  becomes  "rickety"  and  unsafe,  and  is  apt  to 
blow  over  in  a  strong  wind. 

The  roof  should  be  strongly  constructed  and  securely  fastened  to  the 
posts.  Galvanized  iron  or  steel  roofing  makes  a  durable  roof  covering, 
and  the  same  material  or  boards  may  be  used  for  siding.  It  is  advisable 
to  side  hay  sheds,  at  least  part  of  the  way  down,  otherwise  there  may  be 
considerable  damage  from  drifting  rain  or  snow.  If  the  hay  is  stored 
a  bent  at  a  time  the  side  protection  is  not  so  necessary,  but  if  the  plan  is 


FIG.  206.   Plan  of  construction  of  end  section  of  hay  barn  and  general  plan  of  bracing 
for  middle  sections. —  [Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


255 


practiced  of  spreading  the  hay  over  the  whole  area  of  the  shed,  side  pro- 
tection should  be  given  from  driving  rains  during  the  summer. 

Figs.  204,  205,  206  and  207  illustrate  the  plan  of  construction  of  an 
alfalfa  shed  which  the  writer  built  on  his  home  ranch  on  College  Hill,  near 
the  Agricultural  College.  The  shed  is  48  by  24  by  18  %  or  about  17  feet 
high  in  the  clear  from  the  floor  or  ground  walls  to  the  eaves.  The  plan  of 
construction  of  this  shed  may  readily  be  understood  from  the  illustrations. 
The  floor  walls  average  about  18  inches  in  height  and  are  made  of  loosely 
laid  rock  which  was  near  at  hand.  The  posts  were  set  in  cement,  which 
was  rounded  at  the  surface  about  the  posts  in  order  to  shed  water.  The 
floor  of  the  shed  consists  of  loosely  laid  poles — young  trees  which  were 
being  grubbed  in  clearing  a  neighboring  piece  of  land. 

The  posts  are  white  oak  trees,  averaging  about  7  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  top  and  10  to  12  inches  at  the  base.  The  frame  timbers  and  braces 

were  fastened  to  the  posts  with  lag 
screws  and  were  usually  bolted  to- 
gether rather  than  nailed.  Some 
nails  were  used  along  with  the 
bolts. 

The  roof  is  braced  as  shown  in 
Figs.  205  and  206,  and  securely 
tied  to  the  frame  by  braces  at  each 
post,  as  shown  in  plans,  and  each 
rafter  was  securely  nailed  to  the 
plate. 

The  hay  carrier  track  is  at- 
tached to  a  2  by  10  ridge  timber 
for  the  first  10  feet,  and  a  2  by  8 
for  the  remaining  36  feet,  the  2  by 
10  extending  four  feet  over  the  end 
of  the  shed,  from  which  the  fork  is 
lowered  to  the  load.  The  ends  of 
the  rafters  are  flush  with  the  top 
edge  of  the  roof  timbers  and  are 
securely  nailed. 

When  built  this  shed  was  left  open,  but  it  was  later  sided  with  boards 
to  within  four  feet  of  the  floor  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $86.50. 

A  fairly  accurate  account  was  kept  of  the  material  and  labor  required 
to  build  this  shed.  Most  of  the  labor  was  done  by  unskilled  workmen,  an 
expert  carpenter  being  hired  only  seven  days  while  framing  the  shed. 
The  cost  of  this  shed  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

TABLE  No.  32.     Cost  of  a  hay  shed. 


FIG.  207.  Section  of  roof  of  hay  barn, 
showing  extension  for  hay-carrier  track  and 
plan  for  bracing  roof. —  [Courtesy  Kansas 
Experiment  Station.] 


10  long  posts  and  4  short  posts,  including  cost  of  labor  for  cutting  and  hauling, 

Lumber  for  frame  and  roof. 

1850  sq.  ft.  galvanized  steel  roofing,  @  $4.15  per  square,  including  ridge  pole.  . 

Bolts    and    nails 

Lime,  cement,   sand,  etc 

Poles  for  bottom 

Construction  labor,  carpenter  work,  etc 

Painting     

Hay  fork,  pulleys,  track,  carrier,  complete 

Siding,  estimated  cost  of  labor  and  lumber 


256  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

This  is  a  strong  and  durable  shed  and  was  built  at  a  relatively  low 
cost,  yet  on  the  average  farm  it  might  be  built  at  an  even  less  cost.  From 
the  above  discussion,  considering  the  cost  of  a  shed  and  the  saving  in  hay 
and  labor  which  may  result  from  shedding  alfalfa,  every  farmer  who  has 
a  fifteen-acre  field  of  alfalfa  should  build  a  shed.  (See  "Sheds,"  in  index.) 


COMBINATION  HAY  AND  FEEDING  SHEDS. 

By  J.   D.  JOSEPH,  Whitewater,   Butler  county. 

I  use  the  combination  hay  and  feeding  sheds.  Fig  208  shows  one  of 
my  old  hay  barns.  Though  it  has  stood  eighteen  years  it  is  still  in  fair 
repair.  It  was  built  out  of  ordinary  hard  pine,  roof  and  all,  and  the 
cattle  shed  at  the  side  is  supported  with  hedge  posts.  It  is  20  by  120 
feet,  12  feet  to  the  eaves,  with  a  shed  extension  on  one  side  only. 


FIG.  208.    A  combination,  hay  and  feeding  shed. 

The  frame  of  this  barn  consists  of  three  rows  of  uprights  of  4  by  4 
stuff,  set  8  feet  apart — one  row  on  each  side  and  one  row  through  the 
middle — and  is  braced  every  24  feet,  midway  between  the  doors.  The 
rafters  are  2  by  6's,  extending  from  each  upright.  The  2  by  4  stringers 
are  set  on  top  of  the  rafters,  and  are  anchored  to  the  rafters  by  a  2  by 
4  by  8  in.  block  nailed  to  both.  The  frames  of  all  my  barns  are  nailed 
and  bolted  together — nothing  toenailed. 

The  shed  extension  is  7  feet  wide  and  about  5  feet  2  inches  high  at 
the  eaves.  I  built  it  narrow  so  it  would  keep  dry  and  at  the  same  time 
not  cause  the  cattle  to  bunch  up,  and  I  built  it  low  down  so  as  to  furnish 
better  protection  from  the  winds.  The  principal  purpose  of  the  shed  is 
to  shelter  the  stock  from  snows  and  cold  rains.  I  doubt  the  advisability 
of  making  sheds  tight  and  warm.  Stock,  it  appears  to  me,  keep  healthier 
when  practically  in  the  open — only  shelter  from  cold  winds,  rain  and  snow. 
Such  sheds  as  this  keep  much  drier  than  wide  ones,  especially  when  the 
wide  sheds  are  closed  on  all  sides. 

The  manger 'of  this  barn  is  built  on  the  shed  side  and  consists  of  a  2 
by  10  above,  a  2  by  8  below,  and  a  space  of  about  18  inches  between.  I 
usually  place  the  lower  board  so  that  its  upper  edge  will  be  about  22  to 
30  inches  above  the  ground. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


257 


The  side  of  the  barn  opposite  to  the  cattle  shed  is  boarded  up  from  the 
ground  to  the  roof.  It  has  double  doors,  24  feet  apart  from  center  to 
center.  These  doors  extend  6  feet  down  from  the  eaves.  They  are 
swung  on  strap  hinges  and  fastened  with  buttons.  Don't  use  hooks  to 
fasten  the  doors  shut,  because  they  leave  the  door  loose  to  shake  in  the 
winds. 


FIG.  209.    A  combination  hay  and  feeding  shed,  without  shelter  for  the  cattle. 

Fig.  209  shows  a  barn  of  the  same  general  form  as  Fig.  208,  except 
that  it  is  36  feet  wide,  has  doors  on  both  sides,  and  no  shed.  This  barn 
is  144  feet  long  and  12  feet  to  the  eaves,  boarded  up  at  the  ends,  and  on 
the  sides  down  6  feet.  It  is  braced  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  208.  The  frame  at  the  corners  and  ends  is  bolted  to  large 
hedge  posts,  4  feet  in  the  ground  and  extending  about  4  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  doors  are  24  feet  apart  and  the  same  as  those  shown  in 
Fig.  208.  One  door  is  shown  open  in  the  illustration.  The  button  for 
fastening  is  on  the  2  by  4  at  the  bottom  of  the  door,  in  the  middle. 
Notches  are  cut  in  the  doors,  so  the  button,  when  perpendicular,  lets  the 
door  shut,  and  when  turned  horizontally  it  fastens  the  door  securely. 
This  button  is  bolted  on  with  a  quarter-inch  machine  bolt. 

I  have  another  barn  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  209,  except  that 
telephone  poles  were  used  for  uprights.  They  are  much  better  than  4  by 
4's.  I  would  recommend,  for  uprights,  white  cedar  telephone  poles,  5 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  tops,  and  would  set  them  3  feet  in  the  ground 
in  cement.  I  would  use  7-inch  tops  for  the  corners  and  the  centers  of 
the  ends,  and  set  them  4  feet  in  the  ground  in  cement.  Where  poles  are 
used  for  uprights  I  brace  them  the  same  as  when  I  use  4  by  4's.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  tie  the  rafters  with  diagonal  ties  from  center  to  center, 
and  brace  the  rafters  also  to  the  center  row  of  uprights. 

I  use  the  old  way  of  storing  my  hay,  pitching  it  off  the  hay  racks  by 
hand.  I  do  not  use  slings  and  hay  forks,  because  they  necessitate  a 
much  more  expensive  barn  than  I  use  and  one  that  it  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  feed  the  hay  from.  When  hay  is  stored  in  a  high  barn  adapted 
to  the  use  of  slings  or  hay  forks,  not  only  is  the  expense  of  building  much 
in  excess  of  the  barns  I  use  for  the  same  capacity,  but  when  a  high  barn 
is  full  there  must  be  shoots  or  a  vacant  space  partitioned  off  between  the 
hay  and  the  side  of  the  barn  to  get  the  hay  down  to  the  manger.  Such 
arrangements  do  not  appear  to  me  desirable.  I  build  my  hay  barns  so 
as  to  get  a  maximum  of  utility  at  a  minimum  of  cost.  (See  "Sheds,"  in 
index.) 


258  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


A  HAY-CURING  BARN. 

By  E.  I.  BURTON,  Farmer,  Coffeyville,  Montgomery  county. 

Three  years  ago  we  built  a  barn  for  the  purpose  of  curing  and  stor- 
ing alfalfa.  The  dimensions  are  36  by  84  feet,  walls  18  feet  high  and 
constructed  of  Denison  interlocking  hollow  tile,  laid  in  cement.  The  roof 
is  one-third  pitch  and  of  Ludoeci — Celladon  roofing  tile.  The  tile  for 
both  the  side  walls  and  roof  came  from  factories  located  in  Coffeyville, 
making  a  short  haul  for  us.  '  The  next  season  we  built  an  addition  72 
feet  in  length,  using  the  same  material  as  for  the  first  building. 

We  think  there  are  no  walls  for  all  kinds  of  farm  buildings  so  good 
as  hollow  tile,  and  no  roofing  equal  to  tile.  However,  any  other  material 
in  general  use  would,  of  cdurse,  be  all  right  for  a  barn  for  curing  and 
storing  alfalfa.  Here,  where  he  can  haul  the  tile  direct  from  factories, 
without  having  any  freight  or  handling  charges  added  to  the  price,  we 
find  tile  the  cheapest  material  we  can  use  for  good  buildings.  The  tile, 
both  for  walls  and  roofing,  does  not  cost  as  much  as  the  better  grades  of 
lumber  and  shingles.  Then,  after  the  building  is  completed,  there  is  no 
painting  to  be  done. 

In  the  walls,  every  13  feet,  are  11-foot  openings.  These  openings  have 
double  sliding  doors.  When  the  doors  are  all  open  we  have  nearly  one- 
half  the  side-wall  space  for  sun  and  ventilation.  Our  ventilating  doors 
make  the  putting  in  or  taking  out  of  hay  very  convenient. 

The  three  floors  of  the  barn  are  all  made  of  two-inch  native  lumber, 
and  are  laid  open  to  give  perfect  ventilation.  The  two  upper  floors  are 
loose,  so  when  we  are  storing  baled  hay  they  may  be  easily  shifted  to  the 
outer  sides. 

The  barn  is  equipped  with  hay  carriers  running  the  full  length  and 
operated  from  the  center  driveway.  They  will  throw  the  hay  either  way 
desired.  We  use  this  carrier  for  loading  and  unloading  both  baled  and 
loose  hay. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  haying  season  we  have  about  15,000  square 
feet  of  drying  floors.  When  the  weather  will  permit  of  proper  curing  we 
bale  the  alfalfa  in  the  field.  If  the  weather  is  threatening,  when  the 
hay  is  but  partially  cured,*  we  rush  it  into  the  barn  and  scatter  it  out 

*  It  was  for  a  number  of  years  the  practice  of  J.  W.  Berry,  of  Jewell  county,  Kansas, 
to  do  a  large  part  of  the  curing  of  his  alfalfa  hay  in  the  shed.  By  his  method,  it  is  said, 
he  got  better  color  and  quality  and  was  able  to  bale  in  the  winter  and  sell  at  an  average 
of  $2  per  ton  above  the  market  price  for  prime  alfalfa. 

The  usual  practice  in  good  haying  weather  was  to  start  the  mower  when  the  dew  and 
all  foreign  moisture  was  off  in  the  morning,  about  eight  a.  m. ;  rake  as  soon  as  partly 
wilted,  about  eleven  a.  m. ;  and  haul  to  the  shed  for  storage  when  half  cured,  about 
two  p.  m.  The  floor  of  the  shed  was  elevated  a  foot  or  two  above  the  ground  and  con- 
sisted of  narrow  boards  or  poles  spaced  a  few  inches  apart.  The  hay  was  spread  evenly 
and  loosely,  without  tramping;  in  fact,  a  spreading  platform  was  provided  to  make 
walking  over  the  hay  unnecessary.  The  shed  was  so  large  that  a  single  cutting  would 
cover  the  floor  to  a  depth  not  to  exceed  four  or  five  feet.  The  second  cutting  was  spread 
over  the  first,  the  third  over  the  second,  and  so  on,  until  the  shed  was  full.  The  natural 
heating  of  the  hay  and  the  consequent  rise  of  the  warm,  moist  air,  coupled  with  the  open 
space  below  and  the  loose  condition  of  the  hay,  caused  a  circulation  of  air,  which  re- 
moved the  moisture,  prevented  excessive  heating,  and  gradually  cured  the  hay.  Because 
of  the  unusual  care  necessary  to  its  success,  the  method  is  not  recommended  for  general 
practice. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  259 

on  the  slatted  floors,  where  it  is  left  until  cured  dry  enough  to  bale  and 
store  away.  In  this  way  we  are  able  to  save  a  much  higher  percentage 
of  bright,  leafy  hay  than  we  could  save  before  having  this  large  drying 
space.  As  the  season  advances  the  weather  is  usually  more  favorable 
for  outdoor  curing,  and  the  barn  space  is  gradually  filled  with  baled 
hay. 

One  great  convenience  we  have  found  is  that  of  being  able  to  use  our 
power  baler  in  the  barn,  baling  the  alfalfa  that  has  dried  there,  while 
the  weather  is  so  wet  that  we  can  not  work  outdoors.  (See  "Sheds,"  in 
index.) 


LOSSES  IN  FEEDING  VALUE,  AND  A  SCHEME  TO 
PREVENT  THEM. 

By   OSCAR   ERF,    formerly   of  the  Kansas   State  Agricultural   College,    now   Professor   of 
Dairying  at  the  Ohio  State  University,   Columbus. 

There  is  a  marked  degree  of  increase  in  production  between  the  west- 
ern alfalfa  and  alfalfa  that  is  grown  in  the  east.  Taking  average  hays 
into  consideration,  .this  seemed  rather  strange,  and  an  analysis  of  eastern- 
and  western-tgrown  hays  was  made.  The  result  from  a  number  of  samples 
showed  the  western-grown  hay  to  be  more  or  less  uniform  in  composition, 
while  the  eastern-grown  hay  varied  to  a  great  extent. 

The  variation  in  composition  was  always  characterized  by  a  darker 
color,  which  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  hay  was  mow-burnt  or  had  not 
been  well  cured.  This  suggested  the  idea  that  some  of  these  hays  must 
have  been  rained  upon  during  the  making  process  and  that  this  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  difference  in  composition.  Thereupon  green  alfalfa  hay 
was  taken  and  allowed  to  cure  until  dry.  It  was  then  placed  in  a  sink 
under  a  faucet  and  the  water  permitted  to  rain  upon  or  wash  it  for 
about  two  hours,  corresponding  to  a  heavy  rainfall. 

Analyses  taken  before  the  sample  was  washed  and  afterwards  showed 
a  loss  of  14  per  cent  in  protein.  Determinations  of  the  fat  and  ash  were 
not  taken  at  this  particular  time.  Repeated  analyses  were  made  and  in- 
dicated various  degrees  of  losses,  ranging  from  20  per  cent  to  as  high  as 
52  per  cent.  The  drier  the  hay  and  the  harder  it  was  washed,  the  greater 
was  the  loss  in  per  cent  of  protein.  A  considerable  amount  of  the  ash  was 
also  washed  out,  usually  from  4  to  8  per  cent  and  from  2  to  5  per  cent  of 
the  fat.  The  fat  loss,  however,  in  all  the  tests  was  rather  slight. 

The  degree  of  washing  represented  the  different  amounts  of  rainfall, 
which  are  not  uniform,  and  the  resulting  conditions  corresponding  to 
the  conditions  resulting  from  the  different  degrees  of  rainfall.  Similar 
tests  were  made  with  clover,  and  the  results  showed  the  loss  approxi- 
mately one-half  that  of  alfalfa  hay.  However,  in  some  extreme  cases  as 
much  as  34  per  cent  was  lost,  in  the  case  of  clover  hay,  by  washing  and 
leaching.  (See  "Damage,"  in  index.) 

This  was  sufficient  evidence  to  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  difference  in 
results  might  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  alfalfa  hay  was 
made  during  rainy  weather.  However,  this  is  not  the  only  factor  that 
seems  to  reduce  the  feeding  value.  Alfalfa  hay,  if  not  properly  cured  or  if 


260 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


cured  for  a  long  time,  when  put  into  the  mow  is  usually  mow-burnt 
and  the  loss  in  the  center  is  invariably  very  great.  I^ike  rained  hay,  the 
loss  in  protein  exceeded  56  per  cent.  The  fluctuation  in  the  loss  depended 
upon  the  degree  of  heating. 

Large  areas  in  the  center  of  the  mow  of  hay,  that  had  been  mowed  and 
supposedly  well  dried  before  it  was  raked,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  wind- 
rows for  a  day,  was  put  up  in  the  mow,  with  an  average  loss  of  40  per 
cent  in  protein  within  six  feet  of  the  outside  of  a  twenty-foot  mow.  This 
was  not  a  uniform  distance,  on  account  of  the  different  degrees  of  pack- 
ing when  it  was  put  into  the  mow. 

Most  of  the  growers  throughout  the  more  humid  regions  have  found 
it  necessary  to  cu/e  alfalfa  hay  in  cocks  under  caps.  This  is  probably 
the  most  desirable  and  most  practical  method  of  curing  at  the  present 
time,  but  much  care  must  be  taken,  for  if  the  hay  caps  are  too  thin,  so  as  to 
allow  ventilation,  with  continued  rains  they  will  not  shed  the  water,  and 
consequently  prevent  the  cock  from  drying  out.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  cloth  is  too  thick,  the  moisture  driven  off  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
hay  is  held  under  the  cap,  and  as  a  result  the  hay  will  mold. 

These  are  factors  that  are  difficult  to  control,  and  probably  the  most 
reliable  method  for  curing  hay  is  to  put  it  under  large  sheds,  spreading  it 
out  in  thin  layers,  not  to  exceed  four  feet  of  loose  hay,  and  leaving  it  until 
it  is  thoroughly  dried  out  before  mowing  it  away.  Since  the  leaves  are 


itiw  blower.      ( Cross-section  of  barn) 

A  rARHER'S  HOW  MAY  DRIER 

Capacitn-50-Tons. 


Lnlarqed  view  showing  how 
to  extend  pipe,  vertically 


FIG.  210.    The  plan  of  Professor  Erf's  scheme  for  drying  and  curing  hay  in  the  mow. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  261 

the  most  nutritious  part  of  the  alfalfa  plant  and  give  the  best  results  it 
is  necessary  to  adopt  a  method  by  which  the  greatest  per  cent  of  leaves 
can  be  preserved.  When  the  hay  is  dried  too  much  in  the  field,  and  raked 
up  and  handled  in  that  dry  state,  there  is  a  great  loss  in  the  leaves,  and 
the  result  is  that  there  is  largely  stemmy  hay,  which  is  less  palatable  and 
less  digestible. 

The  past  year  (1915)  has  probably  been  one  of  the  most  unfavorable 
years  for  the  curing  of  hays  that  we  have  had  for  some  time,  and  one 
which  has  resulted  in  millions  of  dollars  loss  throughout  the  country,  on 
account  of  the  improper  curing  of  hay,  especially  alfalfa.  With  this  idea 
in  mind  it  was  the  intention  to  devise  a  scheme  by  which  hay  could  be 
properly  cured  in  the  mow  of  the  average  igood  dairy  barn,  without  de- 
stroying its  nutritive  value,  and  at  the  same  time  to  have  this  done  eco- 
nomically without  an  original  great  outlay  of  capital. 

Consequently,  a  four-horse  gasoline  engine  was  put  into  operation 
with  a  pressure  blower  which  forced  large  volumes  of  air  through  the 
hay  during  the  day,  through  a  perforated  pipe,  penetrating  the  floor 
below  and  escaping  into  the  hay  above.  The  engine  was  operated  during 
the  day  for  three  consecutive  days  to  cure  out  one  cutting  of  hay,  which 
was  approximately  six  feet  thick  in  the  mow.  This  was  partially  dried 
in  the  field  before  being  put  into  the  barn,  but  was  still  very  tough. 

At  the  end  of  the  day's  run  a  humidor  was  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
suction  pipe,  into  which  one-half  gallon  of  formaldehyde  was  emptied, 
and  was  then  forced  into  the  hay,  thus  completely  checking  any  fermen- 
tation that  might  arise  during  the  night  and  at  the  same  time  sterilizing 
the  hay.  This  left  the  hay  in  a  very  bright  condition,  apparently  with 
very  little  loss  of  protein.  It  was  considered  a  success  from  the  stand- 
point of  conserving  the  constituents — a  fact  proved  by  chemical  determi- 
nation. However,  in  regard  to  the  actual  feeding  value  no  statment  can 
be  made,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  result  would  be  other 
than  that  obtained  by  chemical  analysis. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  this  method  saves  considerable  labor.  How- 
ever, it  necessitates  the  use  of  gasoline;  but  the  cost  of  this  is  less  than 
the  expense  for  labor  to  cock 'the  hay,  and  the  saving  of  the  protein  in 
the  leaves  is  a  decided  economical  advantage. 

The  probable  cost  would  not  exceed  $1.50  per  ton,  depending  upon  the 
price  of  gasoline.  As  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  the  saving  in  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  leaves  and  the  labor  for  cocking  and  pitching  will 
overbalance  the  cost  of  the  gasoline.  There  is  no  doubt  but  what  the 
farmer  who  is  obliged  to  depend  upon  field  curing  during  the  rainy 
season  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  the  use  of  this  apparatus. 


262  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


ALFALFA  FOR  SILAGE. 

By  J.  B.  PITCH, 
Associate  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

During  normal  years  the  Kansas  farmer  has  but  little  trouble  curing 
alfalfa  hay.  The  most  difficulty  is  experienced  with  the  first  cutting 
which  comes  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  when  rains  are  quite  fre- 
quent. The  summer  of  1915  was  exceptionally  wet,  and  in  most  sections 
of  the  state  the  first  three  cuttings  of  alfalfa  were  damaged  by  rains 
while  trying  to  cure.  Thousands  of  tons  of  alfalfa  rotted  in  the  field, 
and  much  of  the  alfalfa  hay  that  was  stacked  was  of  inferior  quality. 

During  summers  like  the  one  we  have  just  experienced,  and  during 
wet  periods  at  the  time  of  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa,  farmers  are  at  a 
loss  to  know  what  to  do  with  alfalfa  that  is  cut  but  will  not  cure.  With 
the  quite  general  adoption  of  the  silo  on  Kansas  farms  has  come  many 
inquiries  and  some  experiences  in  making  alfalfa  into  silage.  The  use 
of  leguminous  crops  in  the  silo  has  been  practiced  with  more  or  less 
success  in  the  East,  but  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  where  they 
were  mixed  with  corn  or  other  carbonaceous  plants.  The  experience  at 
the  Kansas  Station  and  of  many  farmers  who  have  used  alfalfa  alone  as 
silage  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that  alfalfa  will  not  keep  in  the  silo  as 
well  nor  for  as  long  a  time  as  the  more  common  silage  crops. 

When  corn,  cane,  kafir  or  any  like  plant  is  cut  and  placed  in  the  silo, 
in  the  absence  of  air,  the  sugars  of  the  plant  change  to  acids,  which  pre- 
serve the  crop  as  silage,  and  it  will  keep  indefinitely.  In  the  case  of 
alfalfa,  however,  the  high  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  the  plant  causes  other 
changes,  which  perhaps  check  the  action  of  the  favorable  acids,  and  the 
result  is  more  uncertain. 

When  alfalfa  is  run  through  a  cutter  and  put  into  a  silo  it  acts,  from 
external  appearance,  quite  similar  to  the  common  silage  crops.  When 
the  silo  is  opened,  however,  the  results  are  quite  different.  The  alfalfa 
changes  to  a  dark-brown  color  and  has  a  very  pungent  odor,  which  is 
perhaps  characteristic  of  nitrogenous  fermentation.  Alfalfa  silage  of 
this  nature  is  relished  by  stock,  and  they  do  well  on  it,  but  they  will 
probably  not  eat  as  much  of  it  as  they  will  of  corn  silage. 

One  objection  to  alfalfa  silage  for  dairy  cattle  is  the  strong  odor  it 
carries  with  it,  which  will  make  it  objectionable  to  feed  in  the  milking 
barn.  The  person  who  has  been  accustomed  to  feeding  corn  silage  will 
be  disappointed  with  alfalfa  as  a  silage  crop,  and  the  same  person  who 
has  fed  good  alfalfa  hay  may  be  disappointed  in  the  results  he  gets  by 
using  alfalfa  for  silage. 

But  very  little  work  has  been  done  in  regard  to  the  feeding  value  of 
alfalfa  silage.  We  would  expect,  however,  that  it  would  be  less  valuable 
than  alfalfa  hay,  and  perhaps  less  palatable.  In  the  case  of  poor  cur- 
ing weather  at  the  time  of  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa,  or  during  sum- 
mers like  the  one  just  experienced,  the  silo  method  may  prove  a  means 
of  changing  alfalfa  that  is  doomed  to  rot  in  the  field  to  good  stock  feed. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


263 


Under  normal  conditions  it  can  be  said  that  alfalfa  is  too  valuable  as 
hay  to  be  put  into  the  silo.  Silos,  which  are  generally  empty  at  this 
time,  can  be  filled  with  alfalfa  silage  and  fed  out  before  the  silage  be- 
gins to  deteriorate  and  before  the  silos  are  needed  for  other  crops  in  the 
fall. 

In  order  to  obtain  first-hand  information  upon  the  subject  of  alfalfa 
silage,  and  perhaps  suggest  methods  of  improving  alfalfa  silage,  the 
dairy  department  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College  has  erected 
six  7  by  16  ft.  experimental  silos,  and  in  cooperation  with  the  bacteriology 
and  chemistry  departments  is  trying  to  find  suitable  and  practical  mix- 
tures with  alfalfa  for  making  silage.  The  silos  were  made  of  %-inch 


FIG.  211.    The  silo  can  be  made  the  safeguard  of  the  alfalfa  crop. 

tongue-and-groove  flooring,  and  were  built  on  a  cement  foundation.  The 
silos  were  filled  with  first-cutting  alfalfa  in  the  following  combinations 
in  May,  1914:  alfalfa  alone;  alfalfa  and  corn  chop;  alfalfa  and  black- 
strap molasses;  alfalfa  and  molasses  feed;  alfalfa  and  rye;  and  alfalfa 
and  straw. 

The  alfalfa  was  cut  in  the  early  bloom  and  was  run  through  the  silage 
cutter  in  a  very  moist  condition.  The  silos  were  allowed  to  stand  until 
January  1,  1915,  a  period  of  eight  months,  before  being  opened.  The 
silage  had  all  kept  quite  well,  but  was  a  very  dark-brown  color,  with  a 
very  strong  odor.  A  difference  in  odor  could  be  noticed  for  the  different 
mixtures.  The  odors  were  so  strong  that  it  was  not  considered  safe  to 
feed  the  silage  to  the  dairy  cattle  in  the  milking  barn. 


264  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

To  find  the  difference  in  palatability  of  the  mixtures,  six  feed  bunks 
were  lined  up  in  a  feed  lot  and  a  different  kind  of  alfalfa  silage  placed 
in  each  bunk.  After  trying  this  method  several  days  it  was  noticed 
that  the  animals  ate  the  alfalfa  and  molasses  and  the  alfalfa  and  corn 
chop  silage  first,  with  the  other  mixtures  in  the  following  order:  alfalfa 
alone,  alfalfa  and  rye,  alfalfa  and  molasses  feed,  and  alfalfa  and  straw 
last.  The  alfalfa  and  straw  made  a  very  poor  silage  and  was  eaten  very 
little  by  the  stock.  The  alfalfa  and  molasses,  alfalfa  and  corn  chop  and 
alfalfa  alone  were  eaten  most  by  the  cattle.  No  comparison  was  made  of 
the  feeding  value  of  the  above  mixtures. 

As  mentioned  above,  it  is  believed  that  sufficient  sugars  are  not  pre- 
sent in  alfalfa  to  cause  enough  acid  to  be  produced  to  preserve  the  alfalfa 
at  its  best.  The  object  in  adding  carbohydrates  is  to  bring  this  about, 
and  it  seems  to  have  accomplished  the  desired  result  in  the  case  of  corn 
chop  and  molasses  at  least. 

In  the  spring  of  1915  the  silos  were  again  filled  with  mixtures  of  al- 
falfa. The  silos  had  previously  been  painted  on  the  inside,  and  after  fill- 
ing the  silos  weights  were  placed  on  top  of  the  silage  to  insure  packing. 
The  following  mixtures  were  used  in  1915:  alfalfa  alone,  alfalfa  and  corn 
chop  (10  to  1),  alfalfa  and  blackstrap  molasses  (10  to  1),  alfalfa  and 
blackstrap  molasses  (20  to  1),  alfalfa  and  rye  (2  to  1),  and  alfalfa  and 
cane  butts  (6  to  1). 

When  these  silos  were  opened  the  last  week  of  December,  1915,  the 
silage  was  found  to  be  in  excellent  condition.  As  in  the  previous  test,  the 
mixtures  had  certain  peculiar  odors,  and,  as  before,  the  alfalfa  alone 
had  the  most  pungent  and  offensive  odor.  The  odors  of  the  mixtures 
were  more  nearly  like  the  well-known  silage  odor.  In  a  test  to  determine 
which  mixture  was  liked  best  by  cattle  it  was  found  that  the  alfalfa 
alone  was  eaten  less  than  any  of  the  mixtures  with  alfalfa.  There  could 
be  but  little  difference  noticed  between  the  five  mixtures  mentioned  above. 
A  slight  preference  seemed  to  be  in  favor  of  the  one-to-twenty  mixture 
of  molasses  and  alfalfa,  with  the  one-to-ten  mixture  second,  and  the  mix- 
tures of  cane  butts,  corn  chop  and  rye  following  in  the  order  named. 

In  choosing  the  above  mixtures  the  object  has  been  to  select  combina- 
tions that  would  be  practical  and  could  be  easily  obtained  on  the  farm  at 
the  time  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa  is  ready.  From  the  above  it  would 
seem  that  one  would  be  justified  in  using  mixtures  of  blackstrap  molasses, 
corn  chop,  rye  and  cane  butts  mixed  with  the  green  alfalfa  for  silage. 

The  corn  chop  used  above  was  soaked  in  water  a  few  hours  before  being 
mixed  with  the  alfalfa  as  it  went  through  the  cutter.  The  rye  used  was 
planted  early  in  the  fall  and  used  as  pasture  during 'the  winter  and 
spring,  and  then  allowed  to  grow  until  it  reached  the  milk  stage,  when  it 
was  cut  and  run  through  the  silage  cutter  with  the  alfalfa.  The  cane 
butts  used  were  from  a  crop  of  cane  that  had  been  headed  for  seed  the 
previous  fall.  Kafir  and  corn  fodder  could  no  doubt  be  utilized  in  this 
way  if  protected  during  the  winter.  The  blackstrap  molasses  can  be 
diluted  and  run  into  the  blower  during  cutting,  or  when  very  thick  can  be 
added  to  the  alfalfa  as  it  goes  into  the  cutter. 

An  interesting  example  of  the  use  of  what  might  be  called  alfalfa 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  265 

silage  is  the  method  of  caring  for  alfalfa  on  the  V.  V.  Akin  farm,  near 
Manhattan,  Kan.  Mr.  Akin  generally  has  on  hand  a  large  number  of 
steers.  Some  are  sold  from  grass  and  others  are  full  fed  during  the 
winter.  The  steers  that  are  full  fed  during  the  winter  months  receive 
alfalfa  silage  along  with  cottonseed  meal,  corn,  and  oftentimes  molasses 
feed.  This  so-called  alfalfa  silage  is  made  by  cutting  the  hay  as  soon  as 
any  bloom  appears.  If  allowed  to  come  to  full  bloom  before  being  cut  it 
becomes  hard  and  does  not  make  good  silage  by  this  method.  After  mow- 
ing the  alfalfa  is  immediately  raked  into  windrows  and  then  stacked 
while  in  the  green  condition.  If  any  of  the  alfalfa  becomes  dry  it  is 
cured  for  hay.  The  stacks  are  made  round,  about  25  to  35  feet  in  di- 
ameter and  20  feet  high.  Round  stacks  are  preferred  on  account  of  hav- 
ing less  outside  surface  than  rectangular  stacks,  and  they  also  cut  down 
the  amount  of  spoiled  material  that  would  be  found  at  the  corners.  When 
the  stacks  are  made  they  are  generally  covered  with  old  hay,  fodder, 
manure  or  other  cheap  material  and  allowed  to  stand. 

Upon  standing  the  stacks  gradually  settle  into  very  compact  masses. 
The  exposed  hay  dries  and  the  outside  appears  as  any  stack  does  upon 
standing.  Inside  this  six-  or  eight-inch  outer  coating  of  alfalfa  hay  will 
be  found  six  or  eight  inches  of  charred  and  moldy  alfalfa,  which  perhaps 
forms  the  seal  to  the  stack,  just  as  the  rotten  portion  at  the  top  of  the 
silo  keeps  the  silage  from  spoiling.  On  the  inside  the  alfalfa  is  found 
with  a  dark-brown  color  and  characteristic  odor,  which  resembles  alfalfa 
silage  in  every  way,  with  the  exception  of  not  being  cut  into  short  lengths. 
Mr.  Akin  states  that  the  hardest  work  of  the  whole  method  is  in  getting 
the  alfalfa  out  of  the  stack.  The  feed  is  taken  from  the  top  and  is 
generally  packed  very  hard.  It  can  not  be  cut  with  a  hay  knife,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  get  it  out  with  a  fork.  Thus  far  a  good  sharp  axe  has 
been  most  satisfactory  in  getting  the  feed  out.  Steers  eat  the  feed 
greedily,  and  even  the  dry  and  moldy  parts  on  the  outside  are  eaten  with- 
out any  loss.  During  the  ten  years  that  Mr.  Akin  has  been  using  this 
method  of  handling  alfalfa  he  has  full-fed  thousands  of  cattle,  and 
has  always  found  it  a  most  satisfactory  feed.  He  prefers  alfalfa  in  this 
condition  to  alfalfa  hay.  At  present  they  have  150  acres  of  alfalfa  on  the 
Akin  farm,  and  when  they  start  putting  up  the  crop  they  do  not  stop 
unless  the  fields  are  in  too  soft  a  condition  for  the  teams.  In  a  few  cases 
dry  hay  has  been  placed  on  partly  made  stacks  of  green  alfalfa  without 
any  bad  results.  In  Mr.  Akin's  experience  he  has  never  lost  a  stack  by 
spontaneous  combustion,  and  he  attributes  this  to  the  rule  he  follows  of 
either  stacking  the  alfalfa  very  wet  or  in  a  perfectly  dry  condition.  The 
stacks  are  generally  fed  out  after  standing  six  or  eight  months.  At 
present  Mr.  Akin  has  two  stacks  of  alfalfa  silage,  which  he  estimates  will 
contain  about  400  tons  each. 

This  method  of  making  silage  has  been  used  by  other  men  in  the  state, 
but  Mr.  Akin  is,  perhaps,  the  most  extensive  user  of  alfalfa  silage  in 
Kansas.  If  equally  as  good  silage  can  be  made  by  stacking  the  alfalfa 
as  putting  it  in  the  silo  the  stack  method  would  be  cheapest.  It  has 
been  Mr.  Akin's  experience,  however,  that  small  stacks  are  not  a  suc- 
cess, and  for  the  farmer  with  a  small  amount  of  alfalfa  for  silage  it  is 
best  to  run  it  through  an  ensilage  cutter  and  put  it  into  the  silo.  The 


266  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

small  stacks  do  not  cause  enough  pressure  to  be  exerted  thoroughly  to 
exclude  the  air. 

It  would  seem  from  what  has  been  said  above  that  by  either  putting 
alfalfa  in  the  silo  or  by  stacking  it  green  the  handling  of  the  crop  can 
be  made  a  more  certain  operation,  and  a  farmer  is  less  dependent  upon 
the  kind  of  weather  he  has  for  making  hay.  (See  "Silage,"  in  index.) 


A  DAIRY  FARMER'S  ESTIMATE  OF  ALFALFA  SILAGE. 

By  H.  F.  MEILLER,  Minneapolis,  Ottawa  county. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  making  of  alfalfa  into  silage  is  not 
profitable.  A  ton  of  good  hay  is  ordinarily  worth  $10  on  the  farm  where 
it  is  produced.  Since  by  careful  test  it  has  been  learned  that  it  takes 
5000  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  to  make  a  ton  of  hay,  a  ton  of  alfalfa 
silage  costs  a  little  over  $4,  as  the  putting  of  a  ton  of  green  alfalfa  into 
the  silo  costs  a  little  more  than  the  handling  of  the  800  pounds  of  hay 
it  would  have  made.  It  is  easily  determined  that  it  is  more  economical 
to  use  cane,  kafir  or  corn  in  the  silo,  as  a  very  much  larger  tonnage  per 
acre  can  be  secured.  This  season  part  of  an  upland  field  yielded  S1/^ 
tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre,  and  the  other  part  yielded  17  tons  of  cane 
silage  per  acre. 

On  this  farm  dairying  is  the  main  business.  As  the  land  is  worth 
$170  per  acre  pasture  is  out  of  the  question.  Soiling  is  expensive,  not  al- 
ways practicable  nor  always  profitable.  For  a  cow  to  do  her  best  part  of 
her  ration  must  be  succulent  as  well  as  nutritious.  Silage  is  one  of  the  most 
inexpensive  of  the  succulent  feeds.  When  the  silos  are  emptied,  before  the 
succeeding  corn  and  cane  crops  are  ready,  we  use  alfalfa  silage.  We  have 
done  this  a  number  of  times,  with  less  expense  and  better  results  than  by 
soiling.  We  have  used  all  cuttings  except  the  last,  and  have  not  been 
able  to  detect  any  difference  in  the  quality  of  silage  produced  by  the 
different  cuttings. 

The  alfalfa  is  cut  for  silage  when  in  proper  stage  to  cut  for  hay.  The 
rake  follows  the  mowers  and  the  green  alfalfa  is  hauled  at  once  to  the 
silo.  We  put  it  in  the  silo  without  running  it  through  the  cutter.  This 
materially  lessens  the  cost  of  filling.  We  are  extremely  careful  in  spread- 
ing the  alfalfa  evenly,  so  as  to  insure  even  settling  and  to  avoid 
"pockets."  It  is  also  well  dampened  when  put  in,  which  aids  very  much 
in  getting  it  tramped  in  tightly. 

Fermentation  begins  within  twelve  hours  and  progresses  rapidly.  The 
silage  may  be  fed  after  thirty-six  hours  without  danger  of  bloat. 

In  color  alfalfa  silage  is  a  light  brown,  nearly  tobacco-colored,  has 
an  agreeable  odor,  and  is  relished  by  the  stock.  If  fed  outside  it  should 
be  fed  in  racks  instead  of  bunks,  so  as  to  avoid  waste. 

According  to  reliable  authority,  alfalfa  does  not  make  as  good  silage 
as  many  other  crops  that  are  used  for  silage,  as  it  is  lacking  in  sufficient 
sugar  to  produce  the  proper  fermentation.  However,  we  have  secured 
better  results  from  alfalfa  silage  than  from  any  kind  used,  but  not 
enough  better  to  warrant  its  use  in  place  of  the  crops  ordinarily  used. 
(See  "Silage,"  in  index.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  267 


ALFALFA  SEED  PRODUCTION. 

By  C.  0.  CUNNINGHAM, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  forage  crops  when  grown  under 
conditions  to  which  it  is  adapted.  The  acreage  is  rapidly  increasing,  not 
only  in  the  western  states,  but  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States, 
where  the  farmers  are  rapidly  learning  how  to  grow  alfalfa  under  con- 
ditions not  naturally  adapted  to  the  crop.  Because  of  the  gradual  in- 
crease in  acreage,  and  due  to  the  fact  that  alfalfa  has  to  be  re-seeded 
every  twelve  years,  on  the  average,  the  production  of  alfalfa  seed  must 
necessarily  be  an  important  industry. 

The  United  States  does  not  produce  sufficient  alfalfa  seed  to  supply 
the  domestic  demand,  and  several  million  pounds  are  imported  annually. 
The  indications  are  that  the  demand  for  alfalfa  seed  will  exceed  the 
domestic  supply  for  years  to  come,  and  that  this  industry  will  continue 
to  be  a  highly  profitable  one  under  conditions  adapted  to  the  production 
of  seed.  Portions  of  Kansas  are  well  adapted  for  growing  alfalfa  seed. 

FACTORS  CONTROLLING  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  ALFALFA  SEED. 

Alfalfa  seed  production  is  governed  to  a  greater  extent  by  seasonal 
conditions  than  any  other  crop.  In  fact,  seed  can  be  successfully  pro- 
duced only  when  a  certain  combination  of  climatic  and  soil  conditions 
prevail.  These  factors  can  not  be  controlled  by  the  grower  except  under 
irrigation,  where  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  can  usually  be  regu- 
lated to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  crop. 

In  Kansas  the  seasons  may  or  may  not  be  favorable  for  a  seed  crop 
of  alfalfa,  and  the  amount  of  seed  produced  annually  varies  greatly. 
Under  favorable  conditions  a  considerable  acreage  of  alfalfa  is  per- 
mitted to  "go  to  seed,"  while  in  unfavorable  years  seed  production  may 
be  confined  entirely  to  limited  areas  in  western  Kansas,  where  conditions 
are  normally  suitable  for  growing  seed.  Even  in  this  part  of  the  state 
conditions  are  not  always  such  that  seed  can  be  produced.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  growers  thoroughly  understand  the  factors  influencing 
the  production  of  alfalfa  seed  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  take 
advantage  of  opportunities  to  grow  a  crop  and  to  avoid  losses  usually 
sustained  in  endeavoring  to  produce  seed  under  conditions  that  are  not 
suitable. 

STAND. 

The  thickness  of  the  stand  of  alfalfa  often  influences  the  yield  of  seed. 
Comparatively  thin  stands  may  produce  more  seed  than  thick  ones. 
When  the  stand  is  thin  the  individual  plants  have  an  opportunity  to 
produce  numerous  seed  branches  and  a  corresponding  heavy  "set"  of 
seed  pods  results.  In  the  case  of  thick  stands  most  of  the  seed  pods  form 
on  the  top  branches,  as  the  other  portions  of  the  plants  do  not  make 
seed,  due  to  lack  of  sunlight,  and  perhaps  to  failure  of  the  flowers  to 
become  fertilized.  Where  alfalfa  is  grown  primarily  for  the  production 
of  seed  a  thin  stand  should  be  preferred  to  a  thick  one. 


268  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

CLIMATIC  AND    SOIL   CONDITIONS. 

Climatic  conditions  are  probably  the  most  important  factors  in  grow- 
ing alfalfa  for  seed.  Hot,  dry  weather  during  the  time  the  plants  are 
blossoming  is  necessary  for  best  results.  Conditions  of  drouth  and  heat 
that  produce  a  somewhat  stunted  growth  of  the  alfalfa  plants  usually 
favor  seed  production,  while  conditions  that  result  in  a  rapid  and 
luxuriant  development  of  foliage  are  unfavorable.  Good  seed  crops  are 
rarely  produced  in  Kansas  when  seasonal  conditions  are  favorable  for 
the  production  of  good  crops  of  hay  throughout  the  year.  Climatic  con- 
ditions may  be  suitable  for  a  seed  crop  of  alfalfa,  but  if  the  soil  contains 
an  abundance  of  moisture  too  rank  a  growth  of  alfalfa  may  result.  The 
soil  should  contain  sufficient  moisture  to  insure  a  fair  growth  of  the 
alfalfa  plants,  but  not  enough  to  start  new  shoots  when  the  alfalfa  be- 
gins to  blossom.  Occasionally  the  soil  may  become  too  dry  to  even  pro- 
duce alfalfa  seed. 

FERTILIZATION   OF   THE  BLOSSOMS. 

Honey-gathering  insects  appear  to  have  an  important  part  in  causing 
the  fertilization  of  the  flowers  or  the  "setting  on"  of  alfalfa  seed.  This 
legume  produces  flowers  that  are  dependent  on  some  foreign  agency  to 
bring  about  fertilization.  The  flowers  are  perfect;  that  is,  both  the 
pollen  and  the  pistil  are  produced  in  the  same  blossom,  but  they  are  so 
arranged  that  certain  parts  of  the  flower  have  to  be  released  before  the 
pollen  comes  in  contact  with  the  pistil,  thus  causing  fertilization  to  take 
place.  The  process  of  releasing  the  flower  parts  is  known  as  "tripping." 
Tripping  is  usually  caused  by  honey-gathering  insects  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  flower  parts,  but  it  may  be  accomplished  artificially  by 
inserting  a  pointed  object  into  the  flower  or  by  pressing  the  flower  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  finger.  Ordinarily  the  presence  of  honey-gathering 
insects  is  necessary  to  insure  a  good  crop  of  seed,  although  there  may  be 
other  agencies  that  cause  the  "tripping"  of  the  blossoms.  As  a  rule,  the 
alfalfa  flower  is  cross-fertilized,  the  pollen  being  carried  from  flower  to 
flower  by  insects,  but  it  is  able  to  "set"  seed  when  self -fertilized. 

WHICH   CROP   TO   LEAVE  FOR   SEED. 

In  Kansas  the  second  or  the  third  hay  crop  is  left  for  seed,  depending 
on  the  season  and  the  locality.  In  the  western  portion  of  the  state  the 
seed  is  usually  produced  from  the  second  cutting,  while  in  central  and 
eastern  Kansas  the  third  cutting  is  most  often  utilized  for  this  purpose. 
Good  seed  may  be  produced  from  any  one  of  the  season's  crops,  providing 
soil  and  weather  conditions  are  suitable.  As  a  general  rule  the  crop 
that  would  otherwise  be  the  next  to  the  last  cutting  of  hay  is  the  most 
practical  one  to  leave  for  seed.  The  time  required  to  produce  a  crop 
of  seed  is  about  the  same  as  that  for  two  cuttings  of  hay.  When  the 
seed  crop  is  produced  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  the  chance  of  losing 
part  of  the  growing  season  for  the  production  of  hay  is  greatly  lessened. 
Alfalfa  that  has  made  a  crop  of  seed  usually  does  not  produce  a  satis- 
factory cutting  of  hay,  in  that  its  normal  function  for  the  season  has 
been  performed  after  seed  has  been  produced.  Climate  and  soil  condi- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  269 

tions  are  normally  more  favorable  for  seed  production  during  the  last 
half  of  the  season  than  during  the  first  part,  and  this  is  the  most  im- 
portant reason  why  the  later  cuttings  of  alfalfa  are  usually  left  for  seed. 

WHEN   AND  WHERE   NOT   TO   LEAVE  ALFALFA  FOR   SEED. 

Profitable  seed  crops  of  alfalfa  are  uncertain,  especially  in  central  and 
eastern  Kansas.  At  best  the  grower  is  taking  chances  in  leaving  alfalfa 
for  seed,  since  conditions  that  are  favorable  for  seed  production  may 
suddenly  change,  making  it  impossible  to  obtain  a  profitable  crop.  It  is 
important  that  the  grower  be  able  to  determine  as  early  as  possible 
whether  or  not  there  will  be  secured  a  seed  crop  sufficiently  heavy  to 
warrant  losing  the  two  crops  of  hay  that  would  otherwise  be  obtained. 
The  appearance  and  the  development  of  the  alfalfa  plants  are  the  best 
indications  on  which  to  base  judgment  regarding  seed  production,  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  being  favorable.  If  medium-sized  stocky  plants 
with  numerous  branches  have  been  produced,  which  blossom  heavily 
within  six  or  seven  days  after  the  first  flowers  appear,  and  no  heavy 
rains  occur  during  the  blooming  period,  the  chances  of  obtaining  a  heavy 
yield  of  seed  are  good.  The  grower  should  always  watch  the  alfalfa 
closely  while  it  is  flowering  to  note  whether  or  not  the  blossoms  have 
fertilized  properly.  If  fertilization  fails  to  take  place  the  blossoms  will 
drop  off  in  a  short  time,  while  if  the  flowers  fertilize  as  they  should  the 
petals  dry  and  remain  on  the  stem  for  a  few  days. 

If  excessive  rains  fall  before  the  seed  crop  is  well  along  towards  ma- 
turity it  is  usually  best  to  cut  the  alfalfa  immediately  and  get  the  crop 
off  of  the  field  in  order  to  give  the  next  cutting  of  hay  a  chance  to  start, 
since  under  these  conditions  the  hay  will  probably  prove  more  profitable 
than  the  seed. 

Probably  the  best  indications  that  a  satisfactory  crop  of  seed  will  not 
be  produced  is  the  starting  of  new  shoots  from  the  alfalfa  crowns.  If 
these  new  shoots  develop  abundantly  at  the  time  the  alfalfa  is,  or  should 
be,  blooming,  the  crop  should  be  cut  for  hay  by  all  means. 

WHEN   TO   HARVEST  FOR   SEED. 

The  alfalfa  pods  do  not  set  on  and  ripen  uniformly,  and  therefore  pods 
in  all  stages  of  development  may  be  found  on  the  same  plant.  Individual 
plants  also  vary  in  maturity.  It  is  impossible  to  cut  the  crop  at  a  time 
when  all  the  seed  can  be  saved.  If  the  late  pods  are  allowed  to  mature 
the  early  ones  will  probably  have  become  overripe  and  some  loss  of  seed 
will  occur  from  shattering. 

The  best  results  can  ordinarily  be  obtained  by  cutting  the  crop  when 
from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  seed  pods  have  turned  brown. 
The  seed  in  the  pods  that  vary  from  a  light  brown  to  nearly  green  may 
produce  seed  that  is  viable,  although  it  will  not  be  plump.  As  a  rule,  it 
is  better  to  cut  the  alfalfa  a  trifle  green  than  to  let  it  become  overripe. 
In  the  latter  case  considerable  loss  of  seed  from  shattering  will  likely  take 
place  in  handling  the  crop,  while  if  the  alfalfa  is  cut  a  little  too  early  very 
little  if  any  shattering  will  occur  if  the  crop  is  properly  handled  under 
favorable  conditions.  The  loss  of  seed  from  shattering  due  to  its  becom- 


270  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

ing  overripe,  and  the  risk  involved  by  damage  from  unfavorable  weather, 
will  more  than  offset  the  loss  from  immature  seed  where  the  alfalfa  is 
cut  slightly  green. 

HARVESTING   THE   SEED  CROP. 

Most  of  the  alfalfa  grown  in  Kansas  for  seed  is  cut  with  a  mower  and 
raked  into  windrows  in  much  the  same  way  as  for  hay.  This  method  of 
handling  the  crop  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  but  is  employed  because  of  a 
lack  of  more  suitable  implements.  Where  the  mower  is  used  without 
attachments  some  seed  is  shattered  by  the  tramping  of  the  alfalfa  by  the 
horses,  by  the  mower  wheels  running  over  it,  and  by  raking  the  crop  into 
windrows.  Loss  from  this  cause  may  be  avoided  by  using  an  attachment 
to  the  sickle  bar  which  removes  the  swath  to  one  side.  Such  an  attach- 
ment is  known  as  the  "swather,"  and  it  can  usually  be  used  to  a  good 
advantage.  An  old-fashioned  self-rake  reaper  is  a  satisfactory  im- 
plement for  cutting  seed  alfalfa.  This  machine  leaves  the  crop  in  bunches, 
which  are  dropped  to  one  side,  and  the  tramping  of  the  alfalfa  is  avoided. 
The  grain  binder  is  sometimes  used  for  cutting  the  seed  crop  of  alfalfa. 

Where  bunching  implements  are  used  for  harvesting,  the  alfalfa  should 
be  put  in  shocks  to  cure  soon  after  it  is  cut.  If  cut  with  a  mower  it  is 
necessary  to  rake  the  crop  into  windrows  for  bunching,  and  this  operation 
should  be  done  before  the  alfalfa  becomes  dry.  Where  the  other  imple- 
ments are  employed  in  cutting  the  crop  best  results  are  secured  by  putting 
the  alfalfa  in  the  shocks  so  that  they  can  be  loaded  onto  the  wagon  in  one 
forkful,  as  the  pulling  apart  of  the  shocks  results  in  some  loss  of  seed 
by  shattering.  In  handling  seed  alfalfa  previous  to  threshing  as  much 
of  the  work  as  is  possible  should  be  done  when  the  crop  is  slightly  damp. 

As  soon  as  the  alfalfa  in  the  shocks  becomes  thoroughly  cured  it  should 
be  threshed,  or  if  a  machine  is  not  available  within  a  short  time  it  will 
pay  to  stack  the  crop.  Exposure  to  frequent  rains  results  in  considerable 
damage  by  discoloring  the  seed  and  by  shattering.  Discolored  and 
weather-stained  seed  commands  a  lower  price  than  that  which  is  good  in 
color.  The  alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  the  pods  will  often  cause  them 
to  burst  and  scatter  the  seed.  The  longer  the  alfalfa  is  exposed  to  the 
elements  the  more  readily  the  seed  shatters  and  the  pods  drop  off.  There- 
fore, the  maximum  amount  of  seed  will  be  obtained  by  stacking  or  thresh- 
ing the  crop  as  soon  as  it  is  fit  after  harvesting. 

STACKING  AND  THRESHING   THE   SEED. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  alfalfa  is  thoroughly  cured  before 
it  is  stacked,  in  order  to  prevent  heating  while  in  the  stacks,  as  the 
heating  would  result  in  destroying  the  vitality  of  the  seed.  In  hauling 
the  alfalfa  to  the  stack,  tight-bottomed  racks  or  racks  covered  with  canvas 
should  be  used.  This  applies  equally  well  to  hauling  alfalfa  from  the 
field  to  the  threshing  machine  or  huller.  Much  of  the  seed  will  shatter 
off  regardless  of  the  care  exercised  in  handling  the  alfalfa,  and  if  racks 
with  tight  bottoms  are  employed  in  hauling  the  crop  a  large  per  cent  of 
the  shattered  seed  can  be  saved.  If  old  hay,  straw  or  similar  material  is 
available  it  can  be  profitably  utilized  as  a  stack  bottom,  thus  avoiding 
the  loss  of  considerable  seed  which  would  otherwise  be  spoiled  by  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  271 

lower  portion  of  the  stack  absorbing  moisture  from  the  ground.  Similar 
material  should  be  used  in  topping  out  the  stack.  Alfalfa  straw  from 
which  a  seed  crop  has  been  produced  is  poor  material  to  shed  water,  and 
if  heavy  rains  occur  much  seed  will  be  damaged  because  of  the  rain 
absorbed  by  the  stack.  Old  hay,  millet  or  sorghum  hay  makes  a  much 
better  stack  top  than  alfalfa,  and  it  can  be  profitably  used  in  a  covering 
for  a  seed-alfalfa  stack.  In  the  absence  of  these  or  similar  materials  a 
canvas  stack  cover  can  be  used  to  a  good  advantage. 

The  alfalfa  huller  is  the  most  satisfactory  implement  with  which  to 
thresh  alfalfa.  However,  very  few  of  these  machines  are  available  in 
Kansas,  and  it  is  only  in  limited  sections  that  the  purchase  of  an  alfalfa 
huller  is  warranted.  An  ordinary  threshing  machine  with  a  hulling  at- 
tachment does  good  work  when  the  machine  is  properly  operated.  Best 
results  are  obtained  by  threshing  during  dry  cold  weather,  as  alfalfa  is 
most  brittle  at  that  time.  Alfalfa  can  be  threshed  satisfactorily  at  any 
time  when  conditions  are  dry,  but  threshing  should  be  avoided  if  possible 
during  damp,  humid  weather,  as  the  straw  is  tough  under  these  conditions 
and  the  seed  will  not  thresh  out  readily. 

HANDLING  THE   SEED. 

Threshing  machines  and  hullers  very  rarely  clean  the  alfalfa  seed 
thoroughly,  and  in  order  to  obtain  seed  that  will  command  the  highest 
market  prices,  recleaning  is  necessary.  Very  often  the  increase  in  price 
received  for  the  seed  will  more  than  pay  for  the  extra  work  in  recleaning 
it.  However,  very  few  growers  have  the  necessary  equipment  for  grading 
alfalfa,  and  unless  the  amount  of  seed  on  hand  is  considerable  it  may  not 
be  practical  to  invest  in  a  machine  for  this  purpose. 

Alfalfa  seed  when  properly  stored  will  keep  for  several  years  without 
any  material  deterioration  in  the  vitality  of  the  seed.  Growers  who 
obtain  an  occasional  crop  can  hold  over  seed  for  their  own  use  for  several 
years  without  any  fear  of  the  seed  becoming  devitalized.  Growers  can  also 
take  advantage  of  this  characteristic  and  hold  seed  for  a  year  or  two  for 
better  prices,  during  periods  of  abnormal  production.  (See  "Seed  Crops," 
in  index.) 


ALFALFA  IN  ROWS  FOR  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

By  W.  A.  BOYS,  District  Agricultural  Agent,  West  Central  Kansas,  Hays. 

Rowed  alfalfa  for  western  Kansas  is  not  recommended  as  a  "bonanza" 
crop.  However,  on  dry  upland  it  can  be  substituted  for  alfalfa  planted 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  several  divide-land  farmers  in  west  central 
Kansas  have  found  it  to  be  as  profitable  as  any  other  crop  they  can 
grow.  One  of  the  great  needs  of  this  part  of  the  state  is  a  leguminous 
crop  which  can  be  fed  with  the  sorghum  crops  that  are  grown  in  such 
abundance.  By  growing  alfalfa  in  this  way  a  more  nearly  balanced 
ration  will  be  grown  on  the  farm,  and  the  farmer  can  produce  beef,  milk 
or  pork  more  economically  than  is  done  at  the  present  time. 

Five  or  ten  acres  of  rowed  alfalfa  will  pasture  as  many  hogs  as  the 
average  farmer  will  try  to  grow.  It  will  not  require  a  large  amount  of 
alfalfa  hay  to  feed  a  few  brood  sows  and  pigs  during  the  winter  months, 


272  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


--:  >   ',  f  f  :4  ;i  ':  ^t^: 


FIG.  212.    Rowed  alfalfa  in  full  bloom. 

and  it  will  greatly  reduce  the  amount  of  grain  required.  Ten  or  fifteen 
tons  of  alfalfa  hay,  in  addition  to  the  other  rough  feeds  produced,  will  be 
a  very  material  help  to  the  dairy  cows  during  the  winter. 

In  this  part  of  the  state  rowed  alfalfa  has  not  been  profitable  from 
a  seed-production  standpoint.  What  it  may  do  in  this  line  in  the  next 
few  years  remains  to  be  seen.  None  of  the  fields  under  observation  have 
been  seeded  longer  than  four  years. 

It  can  not  be  expected  that  any  crop  will  grow  satisfactorily  without 
moisture,  but  alfalfa  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  drouth-resistant 
legumes  that  has  been  tried  on  the  divide  land  in  this  section  of  the 
state.  In  1913 — perhaps  as  dry  a  year  as  western  Kansas  has  ever  wit- 
nessed— two  men  report  yields  of  one  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre  from 
rowed  alfalfa. 

Cultivation  and  fewer  plants  in  a  given  area  evidently  have  helped 
materially  in  the  production  of  this  crop  in  very  dry  seasons. 

PREPARATION   OF   THE   SEED   BED. 

The  principles  that  apply  to  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  broad- 
casted alfalfa  will  apply  to  the  seeding  of  rowed  alfalfa.  At  least  two 
different  methods  of  preparing  the  ground  have  been  followed,  and  each 
with  success.  There  are  at  least  three  difficulties  in  getting  a  stand 
of  alfalfa,  and  one  should  bear  these  in  mind  and  use  his  best  efforts 
to  overcome  them.  Perhaps  the  greatest  of  these  is  weed  growth.  Unless 
the  weeds  are  fairly  well  subdued  there  is  little  use  in  seeding  alfalfa, 
as  the  young  plants  will  soon  be  smothered.  For  the  destruction  of 
weeds,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  the  preparation  of  the  ground  should 
begin  in  the  early  spring.  Weeds  should  be  allowed  to  start  in  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


273 


spring,  and  then  the  ground  should  be  double-disked.  It  will  be  well 
to  wait  a  while  for  more  weeds  to  start,  after  which  plow  the  ground 
from  six  to  eight  inches  deep,  depending  on  the  amount  of  moisture 
present.  Then  work  the  soil  down  to  a  good,  firm  seed  bed,  taking  care 
always  to  keep  it  rough  enough  so  that  soil  blowing  will  not  occur. 

SEEDING. 

One  may  be  successful  in  getting  a  stand  of  alfalfa  by  either  early  or 
late  seeding,  but  for  average  conditions  the  last  of  May  or  first  of  June 
will  be  a  desirable  time  to  seed.  This  will  give  opportunity  to  destroy 
weeds  and  get  the  soil  worked  down  to  a  good,  firm  seed  bed.  Grass- 
hoppers at  this  time  will  not  give  as  much  trouble  as  with  later  seeding. 
The  grain  drill,  lister  and  garden  drill  have  all  been  used  with  success, 
so  it  would  probably  be  best  to  use  whichever  tool  one  may  happen  to 


FIG.  213.    Rows  thirty-six  inches  apart  can  be  cultivated  satisfactorily. 
[Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station.] 

have.  With  most  grain  drills  it  will  be  advisable  to  mix  bran  with  the 
alfalfa  seed  in  about  the  proportion  of  two  parts  bran  to  one  of  alfalfa 
seed.  By  this  means  you  will  be  able  to  get  the  seed  sufficiently  thin. 
If  the  lister  is  to  be  used  it  is  best  to  drill  special  holes,  not  larger  than 
one-fourth  inch,  in  a  blank  plate. 

Rows  thirty-six  inches  apart  can  be  cultivated  satisfactorily  and  will 
usually  give  the  best  results. 

Two  pounds  of  good  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient  for  a  good  stand,  and 
with  favorable  weather  it  is  possible  to  get  a  stand  with  a  smaller  amount. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  about  one-half  inch  deep  and  the  soil  left 
as  nearly  level  as  possible  to  avoid  covering  of  the  young  plants  by 
dashing  rains.  Heavy,  dashing  rains  often  cover  up  the  young  plants  or 

—10 


274 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


crust  the  soil  so  that  they  can  not  break  through.  In  such  cases  the 
ground  should  be  worked,  to  kill  the  weeds  that  have  started,  and  re- 
seeded  at  once. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  rowed  alfalfa  is  very  similar  to  that  of  any  rowed 
crop.  It  is  important  to  have  the  ground  free  from  weeds  before  seeding, 
so  the  alfalfa  plants  will  have  time  to  grow  to  a  size  convenient  for 
cultivation  before  it  becomes  necessary  for  this  operation.  For  the  first 
cultivation  a  harrow-tooth  garden  cultivator  will  be  found  to  be  a  good 
tool.  If  this  is  not  at  hand  a  six-shovel  cultivator  may  be  used — the 
smaller  the  shovels  the  better.  Sufficient  cultivation  should  be  given  to 
keep  down  weeds  and  conserve  the  moisture.  After  the  crop  is  once 
established  two  or  three  cultivations  for  the  season  should  be  sufficient. 
Cultivations  early  in  the  season  are  most  important.  If  the  weeds  are 
thoroughly  killed  at  that  time  they  will  not  give  so  much  trouble  later. 

It  is  well  to  use  a  harrow  occasionally  after  the  cultivations,  running 
it  across  the  rows,  so  as  to  level  the  soil  as  much  as  possible.  If  this  is 
not  done  the  loose  soil  will  give  trouble  by  getting  in  the  sickle  and  the 
hay. 

HARVESTING. 

Harvesting  is  done  with  the  mowing  machine.  This  does  the  work 
fairly  well,  but  when  the  alfalfa  plants  are  spreading  in  growth  the 
machine  will  not  get  quite  all  the  lower  branches.  Extension  guards 


FIG.  214.  A  mowing  machine  with  dropper  attachment  in  operation  in  a  field  of  rowed 
alfalfa.  Extension  guards,  that  extend  out  farther  than  the  regular  guards  and  pick  up  the 
lower  parts  of  the  alfalfa  plants,  are  useful  in  harvesting  alfalfa  in  rows. —  [Courtesy  U.  8. 
Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  275 

that  extend  out  farther  than  the  regular  guards  and  pick  up  the  lower 
parts  of  the  alfalfa  plants  can  be  obtained  from  implement  dealers. 

The  first  season  will  seldom  yield  a  hay  crop,  but  the  alfalfa  is  usually 
cut  once  and  left  on  the  ground  to  protect  the  soil  and  prevent  drifting. 

This  year  (1915)  yields  that  have  been  reported  run  from  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  tons  per  acre  for  the  season  (three  cuttings) .  Mr.  W.  E. 
Young,  of  Wallace,  obtained  from  his  oldest  stand  of  alfalfa  two  hay 
crops  and  one  seed  crop.  Ordinarily  one  hay  crop  and  one  seed  crop  or 
two  hay  crops  are  all  that  might  be  expected,  and  in  very  dry  years  one 
crop  is  probably  all  that  will  be  obtained.  The  following  gives  some  of 
the  methods  used  by  a  few  men  who  are  growing  rowed  alfalfa : 

Mr.  J.  H.  Flora,  Quinter,  plows  his  ground  eight  inches  deep  in  the 
spring,  after  weeds  have  started,  and  then  works  the  soil  down  with  the 
harrow  to  a  firm  seed  bed.  The  alfalfa  is  seeded  the  last  of  May.  Mr. 
Flora  first  used  the  grain  drill,  but  this  left  the  seed  in  small  furrows 
made  by  the  discs,  and  heavy  rains  which  fell  soon  after  the  young  plants 
were  up  completely  destroyed  the  stand.  A  garden  drill  was  then  used 
with  very  satisfactory  results.  This  left  the  ground  more  level  and  the 
seed  was  not  covered  so  deeply.  With  two  men  and  two  garden  drills 
eight  acres  per  day  were  seeded  in  36-inch  rows.  The  preceding  crop  was 
potatoes.  Mr.  Flora  has  fifteen  acres  of  rowed  alfalfa  and  expects  to 
have  much  more. 

Mr.  A.  Yale,  Grinnell,  first  gives  his  field  a  top-dressing,  during  the 
winter,  of  three  tons  of  sheep  manure  per  acre.  The  ground  is  plowed 
six  inches  deep  in  the  spring  and  worked  down  to  a  good,  firm  seed  bed 
with  the  harrow.  Seeding  is  done  the  last  of  May  or  the  first  of  June, 
using  the  grain  drill  for  seeding.  Rows  are  thirty-six  inches  apart.  Mr. 
Yale  has  eight  acres  of  rowed  alfalfa  and  expects  to  seed  forty  acres  more. 
He  obtained  three  cuttings  this  season  (1915),  yielding  nearly  three  tons 
per  acre. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Young,  Wallace,  prefers  corn  ground  for  seeding  rowed 
alfalfa.  He  lists  the  ground  early  in  April  and  harrows  the  ridges  after 
each  rain  till  the  last  of  May.  He  then  splits  the  ridges,  running  the 
lister  about  four  inches  deep  and  the  subsoiler  one-half  inch  deep.  Mr. 
Young  has  had  good  success  in  securing  a  stand  by  this  method.  Some 
farmers  in  his  county  have  complained  that  the  rabbits  eat  the  alfalfa 
crowns  and  destroy  the  stand.  Mr.  Young  has  had  no  trouble  from  this 
source,  as  by  listing  the  crowns  are  covered  with  soil  and  the  rabbits  are 
unable  to  get  to  them.  To  level  the  ridges  Mr.  Young  uses  a  weed  cutter 
with  knives,  followed  with  the  harrow,  and  once  with  the  shovel  cultivator. 

From  the  results  that  have  been  obtained  by  these  farmers  it  would 
seem  well  worth  while  for  others  in  the  western  fourth  of  the  state  to  try 
a  few  acres  of  rowed  alfalfa,  but  do  not  expect  too  much  of  the  crop  at 
first. 


At  present  prices  forty  acres  of  alfalfa  would  keep  an  ordinary  family 
in  good  circumstances  year  after  year.  I  think  it  the  most  profitable 
crop  we  can  raise.  If  it  gets  the  proper  culture  it  will  not  die  out  in  a 
long  time.  It  helps  to  enrich  the  rest  of  the  farm,  especially  if  fed  to 
stock  and  the  manure  is  put  back  on  the  land.  I  have  built  up  two  worn- 
out  farms  with  it. — A  Brown  county  correspondent. 


276  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


IRRIGATION  OF  ALFALFA. 

By  H.  B.  WALKER,  State  Irrigation  Engineer,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 
ESSENTIALS  FOR  ALFALFA. 

Experience  in  the  growing  of  alfalfa  indicates  that  this  valuable 
legume  thrives  best  in  a  rich,  deep,  well-drained  soil,  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  sunshine,  comparatively  high  summer  temperatures,  and  a 
well-regulated  moisture  supply.  Where  irrigation  can  be  practiced  the 
western  part  of  Kansas  affords  these  essential  conditions.  The  deep, 
loamy  soils  of  this  region  have  unquestioned  fertility,  sunshine  is  abund- 
ant, and  the  summer  temperatures  average  rather  high.  Quite  naturally, 
however,  where  sunshine  is  so  abundant  moisture  by  natural  precipita- 
tion is  often  lacking.  This  is  true  of  a  considerable  area  in  Kansas.  Much 
of  our  otherwise  naturally  best-adapted  land  for  the  culture  of  alfalfa 
must  be  artificially  supplied  with  moisture  to  produce  paying  crops  of 
this  legume.  It  is  only  natural  that  our  principal  irrigated  crop  should 
be  alfalfa. 

KANSAS   IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  in  Kansas  has  never  been  extensively  practiced,  due  largely 
to  the  fact  that  our  watercourses  have  never  furnished  an  ample  water 
supply  for  gravity  irrigation  systems.  Within  the  past  ten  years,  how- 
ever, very  rapid  and  satisfactory  progress  has  been  made  in  pumping 
from  wells  for  irrigation.  The  development  of  the  immense  underground 
water  supplies  which  are  known  to  underlie  such  a  great  part  of  this 
territory  is  destined  to  be  an  important  factor  in  western  Kansas  alfalfa 
production.  While  it  is  not  probable  that  extensive  areas  of  this  under- 
flow district  will  be  developed  in  the  near  future,  the  experiences  of  the 
practical  irrigation  farmers  so  far  indicate  that  all  the  desirable  alfalfa 
land  in  the  shallow-water  regions  can  unquestionably  be  economically 
developed,  and  encouraging  results  obtained  in  the  deep-well  districts 
give  promise  of  the  development  of  comparatively  large  areas  of  the 
uplands. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR   SATISFACTORY  IRRIGATION. 

A  very  desirable  and  essential  condition  for  satisfactory  and  success- 
ful irrigation  is  a  smooth  surface  with  a  uniform  slope.  Kansas  land 
which  is  subject  to  irrigation  is  usually  fairly  smooth,  but  even  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  it  is  hardly  probable  that  a  single  field  can 
be  found  which  will  not  require  some  leveling  before  satisfactory  irriga- 
tion can  be  carried  out.  A  rough,  uneven  surface  permits  the  water  to 
collect  in  pools  at  some  points,  thereby  resulting  in  injury  to  the  crops  and 
the  wasteful  use  of  the  water ;  in  other  places  too  little  water  will  reach  the 
land,  and  the  crops  will  accordingly  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture.  Where 
both  water  and  land  are  cheap  uneven  surfaces  might  be  irrigated  without 
complete  failure,  but  the  Kansas  farmer  must  fully  appreciate  the  value 
of  the  correct  spreading  of  the  water  at  the  outset;  otherwise  he  is  sure 
to  meet  with  failure.  Generally  speaking,  pumped  water  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  water  taken  from  a  canal.  The  pumped  irrigation  water 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


277 


in  Kansas  is  no  exception,  for  lifting  water  requires  power;  power  costs 
money.  Consequently,  waste  of  water  is  a  waste  of  money.  Alfalfa  is 
the  most  profitable  irrigated  crop,  but  the  margin  of  profit  is  measured 
very  largely  by  the  economy  with  which  the  water  is  applied. 

REASONABLE  PREPARATION  NECESSARY. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  successful  irrigation  depends  upon  a 
reasonable  preparation  of  the  land  to  receive  the  wat.er.  Alfalfa  is  a 
"long-time"  crop;  that  is,  it  does  not  require  frequent  reseeding.  This 
permanency  of  the  crop  renders  it  highly  important  that  the  field  should 
be  placed  in  the  very  best  possible  condition  before  seeding.  The  farmer 
can  not  afford  to  leave  his  land  in  a  poor  condition  to  receive  the  water, 
as  this  would  mean  not  only  the  inconvenience  and  inefficiency  of  irriga- 
tion for  a  single  season,  but  for  a  period  of  perhaps  fifteen  or  twenty 
years.  Small  losses  collectively  make  large  ones;  accordingly  the  little 
details  in  land  preparation  must  not  be  neglected. 


FIG.  215.    Fresno  scraper. 
[Sketch  made  from  cut  in  U.  S.  Department  Bulletin  373.] 


LflMC?   LE.VE.L.E.R 

FIG.  216.   Laud  leveler  or  float. 


278  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

PRELIMINARY  PREPARATIONS. 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  a  field  for  irrigation  is  the  removal 
of  any  dry  or  bulky  vegetable  matter.  The  entire  field  should  then  be 
carefully  surveyed  by  a  competent  engineer  or  surveyor,  to  determine  the 
relative  slope  of  the  land  as  well  as  the  high  and  low  places.  Such  a 
survey  will  enable  the  owner  to  estimate  roughly  the  quantity  or  amount 
of  leveling  necessary.  Not  an  uncommon  method  of  leveling  practiced  by 
the  inexperienced  is  to  turn  the  water  over  the  field  and  let  it  seek  its 
level.  This,  however,  is  a  crude,  expensive,  and  sometimes  misleading 
method,  and  should  never  be  practiced  where  pumping  is  necessary.  An 
engineer  with  his  leveling  instrument,  in  a  few  hours  and  at  a  fraction 
of  the  cost,  can  give  the  farmer  more  information  than  could  be  secured 
by  "water  levels"  in  several  days. 

LEVELING  WITH   SCRAPERS. 

Where  the  ground  surface  is  very  uneven  the  higher  places  must  be 
scraped  off  and  the  dirt  carried  to  the  depressions.  For  such  leveling 
the  Fresno  scraper  is  convenient  and  efficient.  These  scrapers  are  made 
in  various  sizes  suitable  for  two-  or  four-horse  teams,  and  are  filled  or 
loaded  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  ordinary  "slip"  scraper.  They  have, 
however,  a  wider  bit  and  greater  capacity,  and  when  filled  they  may  be 
conveniently  hauled  to  the  low  places  and  emptied.  These  scrapers  when 
dumped  do  not  deposit  the  earth  in  a  lump  but  smooth  it  out  evenly. 
(Fig.  215  shows  a  cut  of  one  of  these  scrapers.)  Wheel  scrapers  are 
sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose,  but  on  account  of  the  low  first  cost, 
as  well  as  the  efficiency  in  operation,  the  Fresno  scraper  is  more  generally 
used  and  is  better  adapted  to  the  smoothing  of  land  for  irrigation. 

LEVELING  WITH   FLOATS. 

After  the  ridges  have  been  lowered  and  the  depressions  filled  with  the 
Fresno  scraper  the  surface  may  be  finally  smoothed  by  floating  the 
ground.  To  successfully  accomplish  this  the  area  must  be  free  from  dry 
or  bulky  vegetable  matter,  and  the  entire  field  should  be  plowed  reasonably 
deep  and  the  surface  harrowed.  A  homemade  timber  float,  constructed 
as  shown  in  Fig.  216,  is  perhaps  the  best  and  simplest  implement  for  this 
work.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  float  is  so  constructed  that  it  will  ride 
heaviest  on  its  center  when  being  drawn  across  a  ridge,  thereby  collecting 
a  quantity  of  dirt  between  the  long  runners.  As  the  implement  is  drawn 
across  a  depression  it  will  ride  upon  the  ends  of  the  runners,  and  the 
earth  previously  collected  from  the  ridges  will  be  automatically  dumped 
in  the  depression.  Deep  plowing,  thorough  harrowing  and  systematic 
floating  will  often  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  leveling  many  acres  of 
Kansas  land. 

In  operating  the  float  it  is  first  drawn  on  a  diagonal  across  the  field; 
that  is,  if  the  field  has  a  slope  east  and  west,  and  was  so  plowed,  the 
float  should  first  be  drawn  across  the  land  in  a  northeasterly  and  south- 
westerly direction  until  the  field  is  covered ;  then  again  in  a  northwesterly 
and  southeasterly  direction  for  the  second  floating,  with  a  final  floating 
in  the  general  direction  in  which  the  water  is  to  be  carried.  Three  float- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


279 


ings  are  usually  sufficient,  but  in  some  cases  more  will  be  required.  In 
the  latter  case  the  final  floating  should  always  be  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  water  will  be  carried  across  the  field. 

THE   DISTRIBUTING   SYSTEM. 

In  addition  to  a  level  surface,  proper  ditches  to  conduct  the  water  over 
the  area  to  be  irrigated  are  very  essential.  The  main  supply  ditch  should 
of  course  be  located  upon  the  highest  land, '  and  from  this  main  ditch 
laterals  or  field  ditches  should  radiate  over  the  alfalfa  land.  A  well- 
located  and  carefully  constructed  ditch  system  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  efficient  application  of  water.  The  main  ditch  should  be  as  direct  as 
possible  and  large  enough  to  convey  the  water.  The  size  of  the  ditch 
will  depend  upon  the  slope  of  the  land,  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  car- 
ried, and  the  method  of  application.  The  usual  pumping  plant  does  not 
have  a  high  capacity,  consequently  the  main  distributing  ditches  need 
not  be  very  large.  If  the  field  has  been  previously  surveyed  the  location 
is  easily  determined,  and  an  engineer  should  be  consulted  to  determine 
the  size  of  cross-section  of  the  ditches.  For  small  quantities  of  water  the 
judgment  of  the  farmer  will  usually  enable  him  to  determine  the  required 
size  of  channel. 


FIG.  217.    Crowder  used  for  ditch  construction. 

A  common  method  of  construction  after  the  ditches  have  been  located 
is  to  plow  out  the  ditch  line  with  a  plow  or  lister.  If  with  a  plow  the 
dirt  should  be  thrown  away  from  the  center  line  of  the  ditch.  For  the 
irrigated  section  of  Kansas,  however,  a  lister  is  convenient.  The  main 
ditches  may  be  constructed  by  plowing  out  two  parallel  lister  furrows 
and  then  "splitting  the  middle"  with  a  third  lister  furrow.  In  this  fur- 
row the  erowder  (see  Fig.  217)  is  drawn  to  push  the  dirt  out  to  form  the 


280 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  218.    Ridger  for  making  borders. 
[Sketch  made  from  cut  in  U.  S.  Department  Bulletin  373.] 

side  banks  of  the  ditch.  In  this  manner  the  ditch  is  cheaply  and  efficiently 
constructed,  and  when  it  is  completed  and  the  water  turned  in  the  surface 
of  the  water  is  above  the  ground  surface  to  be  irrigated.  Lateral  ditches 
over  the  area  to  be  irrigated  may  be  constructed  in  a  similar  manner,  but 
these  smaller  ditches  may  require  only  a  single  lister  furrow. 

METHODS   OF  DISTRIBUTION. 

The  location  of  the  distributing  system  must  conform  to  the  lay  of 
the  land  and  the  method  of  applying  the  water.  Where  the  surface  is  on 
a  general  slope  and  flooding  from  laterals  is  practiced,  the  lateral  ditches 
should  be  located,  in  general,  with  the  contour  of  the  slope,  and  the  area 
between  laterals  is  then  flooded  as  shown  by  the  sketch  in  Fig.  219.  This 
practice  is  favored  quite  largely  in  the  upland  areas,  the  distance  be- 
tween field  laterals  being  about  100  to  350  feet,  depending  to  some  ex- 
tent upon  the  steepness  of  the  slope.  The  land  is  then  flooded  as  shown 
by  Fig.  223. 

Another  method  followed  extensively  in  Kansas,  and  more  particu- 
larly in  the  valley  regions,  is  to  lay  out  the  field  laterals  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  for  flooding.  These  laterals  are  usually  about  250  to 
350  feet  apart.  The  spaces  between  are  then  divided  into  checks  by 
throwing  up  borders  every  50  or  80  feet  at  right  angles  to  the  field 
laterals.  These  borders  are  low  ridges  8  to  10  inches  high  and  6  to  8 
feet  wide.  In  applying  the  water  the  space  between  the  borders,  and 
extending  from  lateral  to  lateral,  is  flooded.  This  is  known  in  manj 
localities  as  the  strip-check  system  of  irrigation.  This  last-mentioned 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


281 


/Public   Rood       / 


Moin 


/ 


f roro    /    • 

/     ' 

/ 


/ 


/ 


Coovas 


Pi  eld     Laterals 


/ 


U>ar-o 


I 
./  ? 


F"loodi(oc5 


282 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  283 

system  is  perhaps  less  wasteful  of  water  than  the  former,  yet  the  cost 
of  preparing  the  land  is  much  greater.  The  borders  may  be  constructed 
by  a  "ridger,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  218,  or  with  an  orchard  disk  turned  to 
throw  the  dirt  toward  the  center. 

Furrow  irrigation  is  not  used  for  the  watering  of  alfalfa,  but  a  modi- 
fication of  this  system  is  sometimes  used  by  making  shallow  depressions 
across  the  field  in  rows  about  two  feet  apart.  This  is  known  as  the 
corrugated  system.  While  satisfactorily  and  extensively  used  in  certain 
western  localities,  this  method  has  been  but  little  used  in  Kansas. 

PRACTICAL   KNOWLEDGE. 

The  farmer  must  make  a  careful  study  of  his  local  problems  and 
adopt  the  methods  best  suited  to  these  particular  conditions.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  tell  a  farmer  in  detail  how  to  prepare  land  for 
irrigation.  Much  of  his  knowledge  must  come  from  practical  experience 
in  the  field.  In  Kansas  the  practice  seems  to  indicate  that  the  alfalfa 
should  be  seeded  before  the  field  laterals  are  constructed.  In  case  the 
area  should  be  laid  off  in  checks  by  the  construction  of  borders,  these 
borders  should  be  thrown  up  before  seeding,  but  the  laterals  may  be 
subsequently  made.  The  alfalfa  should  be  seeded  fairly  thick  and 
drilled  to  a  shallow  depth.  Immediately  after  the  construction  of  the 
lateral  ditches  the  entire  area  should  be  irrigated.  The  warm  sunshine, 
the  rich,  deep  soil  and  the  irrigation  water  act  rapidly,  and  a  heavy 
stand  of  alfalfa  is  practically  assured.  Alfalfa  seeded  upon  newly 
broken  buffalo-grass  sod  has  been  known  to  yield  three  cuttings  of  good 
hay  the  first  season.  Some  farmers  favor  a  thorough  irrigation  before 
seeding,  and  this  practice  has  been  very  satisfactory. 

THE  PROPER  TIME  TO   IRRIGATE. 

Alfalfa  requires  a  liberal  moisture  supply.  The  general  appearance  of 
the  plant  is  a  good  guide  as  to  when  water  should  be  applied.  Alfalfa 
has  a  light-green  color  when  healthy  and  vigorous.  If  moisture  is  de- 
ficient the  leaves  darken  and  droop,  and  if  irrigation  is  not  soon  prac- 
ticed both  stems  and  leaves  may  wither  and  die.  The  soil  at  all  times 
should  have  enough  moisture  some  four  to  six  inches  below  the  sur- 
face to  cause  it  to  stick  together  when  pressed  in  the  hands.  Kansas 
practice  indicates  that  each  cutting  should  receive,  in  ordinary  seasons, 
at  least  one  irrigation,  and  preferably  the  time  of  application  should  be 
a  week  or  ten  days  before  cutting.  Here  again  practice  differs,  since 
many  prefer  to  irrigate  soon  after  cutting,  while  others  prefer  to  irri- 
gate twice  for  each  cutting.  Perhaps  the  heaviest  yields  have  been  se- 
cured where  two  light  irrigations  are  applied,  the  first  one  about  one 
week  after  cutting  and  the  second  four  to  seven  days  before  cutting. 
This  system,  however,  is  not  extensively  practiced,  since  many  dislike  to 
go  to  the  expense  of  spreading  the  water  twice  for  one  cutting,  and  the 
majority  seem  to  favor  one  heavy  irrigation  about  a  week  before  the 
cutting. 


284 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  221.    Reasonable  preparation  of  the  land  is  very  essential  with  small 
water  supplies. 

THE   QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  APPLY. 

The  quantity  of  water  to  apply  per  irrigation  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  season.  Irrigation  in  Kansas  is  supplemental  to  the  natural 
precipitation,  consequently  more  water  is  needed  in  some  years  than 
others.  Other  factors  also  enter  in,  such  as  the  character  of  the  soil  and 
the  head  of  water  used.  Sandy  soils  require  more  water  than  the  heavier 
loam  soils.  For  instance,  less  water  is  required  for  an  upland  region 
than  for  the  sandy  valleys.  In  the  valley  districts,  or  sandy  loam  soils, 
about  6  inches  of  water  is  applied  for  each  irrigation,  and  in  some  cases 
as  much  as  9  inches  are  used.  In  the  upland  areas  2.5  to  6  inches  are 
applied  for  each  irrigation.  Where  the  alfalfa  is  irrigated  twice  about 
2.5  inches  are  applied  for  each  irrigation.  Under  extreme  conditions  on 
the  sandy  lands  alfalfa  may  receive  as  much  as  36  inches  of  water  an- 
nually. However,  under  the  best  farming  conditions  in  the  valleys  24 
inches  annually  should  be  sufficient,  and  in  the  upland  areas  from  12 
inches  to  20  inches  should  be  ample  for  a  season. 

THE  HEAD  OF  WATER  TO  USE. 

The  amount  of  water  available  for  farm  irrigation  is  known  as  the 
"head  of  water."  A  small  amount  is,  therefore,  a  "small  head"  and  a 
large  quantity  is  a  "high  head."  Where  the  water  must  be  pumped  the 
farmer  must  usually  content  himself  with  a  small  head  of  water,  and 
where  small  heads  must  be  utilized  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  ap- 
plication. Irrigation  water  is  lost  by  seepage,  evaporation  and  deep 
percolation.  When  the  water  is  applied  in  small  quantities  seepage  is 
relatively  large,  a  high  percentage  evaporates,  and  a  considerable  portion 
percolates  so  deep  in  the  ground  as  to  be  beyond  the  feeding  roots  of  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


285 


Fia.  222.    Alfalfa  should  grow  on  the  ditch  edges. 

alfalfa  plant.  Where  higher  heads  are  available  the  water  is  conducted 
more  rapidly  over  the  surface  and  the  losses  above  enumerated  are  ac- 
cordingly diminished.  Moreover,  the  time  required  to  spread  the  water  is 
reduced  and  the  cost  of  application  relatively  decreased.  On  account  of 
the  tendency  for  sandy  soils  readily  to  absorb  water,  such  areas  should 
be  irrigated  with  higher  heads  than  the  heavier  upland  regions.  It  is 
always  advisable  to  use  relatively  high  heads  of  water.  For  this  reason 
large-capacity  pumping  plants  are  preferred.  One  thousand  gallons  per 
minute  capacity  will  afford  a  water  supply  for  nearly  three  times  the 
area  that  500  gallons  per  minute  capacity  will  supply. 

WINTER  IRRIGATION. 

The  application  of  water  to  a  soil  outside  of  the  usual  irrigation  sea- 
son is  termed  winter  irrigation.  Winter  irrigation  of  alfalfa  in  Kansas 
is  proving  very  satisfactory.  This  is  due  in  a  measure  to  the  use  of 
pumping  plants.  Even  in  fairly  cold  weather  pumped  water  can  be  run 
in  the  farm  ditches  without  experiencing  trouble  with  ice  floes.  Ditch 
or  reservoir  water  can  not  be  successfully  handled  in  cold -weather,  be- 
cause of  ice  troubles.  Moreover,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  pumping  plant 
as  many  days  as  possible,  provided  the  acreage  irrigated  is  proportion- 
ately large.  The  most  favorable  time  of  application  is  during  the  latter 
part  of  February,  although  December  irrigation  has  given  satisfactory 
results.  It  appears  from  the  practice  of  Kansas  farmers  that  enough 


286 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  287 

water  can  be  stored  in  the  soil  during  the  winter  months  to  insure  a 
heavy  first  cutting  of  alfalfa,  and  a  reasonable  second  cutting,  even  if 
further  irrigation  is  not  practiced.  The  stored  water  in  the  soil  releases 
the  plant  food  during  the  winter  months,  and  with  the  approach  of  the 
warm  spring  sunshine  the  alfalfa  starts  its  growth  early  and  matures 
rapidly.  In  fact,  winter  irrigation  has  a  tendency  to  prolong  the  growing 
season  of  this  legume. 

Abundant  sunshine  is  essential  in  the  production  of  first-quality 
alfalfa.  The  irrigated  sections  of  Kansas,  with  a  self -controlled,  reliable 
water  supply  by  means  of  pumping,  offer  favorable  conditions  for  grow- 
ing alfalfa  of  the  highest  quality,  and  when  good  soil,  irrigation  water 
and  common-sense  farming  are  combined,  alfalfa  production  in  such 
regions  will  be  successful. 

READING  REFERENCES. 

(1)  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  373.    Irrigation  of  Alfalfa.    U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture. 

(2)  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  158.    How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

(3)  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  263.    Practical  Information  for  Beginners  in 

Irrigation.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
(See  "Irrigation,"  in  index.) 


Results  of  extensive  experiments  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  show 
a  marked  superiority  of  the  forage  system  of  feeding  over  the  dry  lot  for 
young,  rapidly  growing  pigs.  The  best  dry-lot  gain  cost,  with  50-cent 
corn,  $4.36  per  cwt.,  as  compared  to  $2.88  on  alfalfa,  $3.69  to  $3.84  on 
red  clover,  and  $3.63  to  $3.95  on  rape.  The  gains  were  also  less  rapid  in 
a  dry  lot.  All  in  all  the  forage  system  is  clearly  in  the  lead  with  growing 
pigs. 

Alfalfa  is  a  superior  hog  forage.  In  1911  an  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture 
carried  16.5  hogs  for  180  days.  These  hogs  had  an  average  weight  of  89 
pounds  and  consumed  a  grain  ration  consisting  of  ear  corn,  plus  5  per 
cent  of  meat  meal.  The  daily  allowance  was  4.05  pounds  of  concentrates 
per  100  pounds  live  weight.  With  corn  at  50  cents  a  bushel  and  meat 
meal  at  $2.50  per  cwt.,  the  gains  cost  $2.88  per  cwt.  Counting  the  pro- 
duction cost  of  the  crop  at  $10.75  an  acre,  the  net  profits,  with  hogs  sell- 
ing at  $5  to  $6,  were  $65.99  and  $97.09.  After  paying  all  expenses  of 
the  crop  and  the  meat  meal,  the  hogs  returned  for  every  bushel  of  corn 
86.6  cents  when  selling  at  $5,  and  $1.04  at  $6. 

This  alfalfa  was  sown  in  the  fall  of  1910  and  was  pastured  in  1911 
from  May  19  to  November  15.  The  alfalfa  growth  was  allowed  to  keep 
well  ahead  of  the  hogs,  so  that  extra  cuttings  could  be  made.  Altogether 
3838  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  was  cut  from  the  acre,  credit  for  which  is 
given  at  $14  a  ton  in  the  computations.  Our  experience  has  been  that 
alfalfa  pasture  will  withstand  grazing  well  if  handled  in  this  manner. — 
J.  M.  Evvard,  in  Breeder's  Gazette. 


288 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  289 


ALFALFA  MACHINERY. 

By  F.  A.  WIRT  and  R.  E.  WISEMAN, 
Department  of  Farm  Machinery,  Engineering  Division,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

The  title  of  this  article  will  be  used  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word, 
and  will  include  machinery  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed, 
planting,  cultivating,  harvesting,  threshing,  cleaning  seed,  and  main- 
taining fertility.  Under  the  name  of  the  machine  a  short  description 
will  be  given,  followed  by  a  few  words  on  operation  and  care.  Selection 
and  care  of  machinery  in  general  will  be  treated  briefly. 

PREPARATION    OF   SEED   BED. 

Plows. 

These  are  so  well  known  that  a  description  hardly  seems  necessary. 
Of  the  three  general  kinds — the  walking  plow,  sulky  plow,  and  engine 
gang — the  second  named  is  used  by  far  the  most.  Walking  plows  in  12, 
14  and  16  in.  sizes  are  used  for  gardens  and  small  irregular  fields.  Two 
horses  will  do  for  the  12  in.  and  three  on  the  larger  sizes.  The  common 
sizes  of  riding  plows  in  Kansas  are  the  16-in.  sulky  and  12-in.  gangs. 
The  frame  machine  with  a  tongue  is  preferred  to  the  frameless.  If 
more  than  three  horses  on  the  sulky  and  four  on  the  gang  are  to  be 
worked,  the  teams  should  be  hitched  in  tandem.  When  more  than  the 
number  mentioned  is  worked  abreast,  side  draft  becomes  very  trouble- 
some. 


FIG.  225.    The  rotary  disk  plow. —  [Courtesy  Moline  Plow  Company.] 

For  tractor  use  several  companies  have  put  out  attachments  for 
their  horse  gangs.  By  removing  the  depth  lever  and  adding  a  lever  that 
can  be  handled  from  the  tractor,  and  with  the  proper  hitch,  these  plows 
are  giving  good  results.  Tractor  gangs  of  the  2-3  and  3-4  sizes  have  been 
sold  in  great  numbers  the  past  two  years.  The  self -lift  construction 
makes  it  possible  for  one  man  to  operate  both  the  tractor  and  the  plow. 


290  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

By  pulling  on  a  rope  the  bottoms  can  be  raised  or  lowered.  Where  more 
than  one  wheel  supports  the  plow  it  is  best  to  have  the  wheel  on  the 
right  run  in  the  furrow.  Guiding  the  engine  will  be  much  easier. 

The  moldboard  plow  is  unsatisfactory  for  hard,  dry  soils,  and  black, 
waxy  soils.  The  disk  plow  can  then  be  used  to  good  advantage.  It  will 
turn  a  furrow  regardless  of  the  scouring  qualities,  as  a  scraper  cleans 
the  disk.  Disk  plows  will  not  work  in  extremely  hard  ground.  Where 
the  moldboard  plows  will  give  good  results,  their  use  is  preferable. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  Never  use  a  very  dull  share  longer  than  is 
necessary.  The  draft  is  increased  materially  and  the  work  is  not  as 
good.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  an  extra  set  of  shares  on  hand  to  guard 
against  delays. 

Suction  on  riding  plows  should  be  about  one-half  of  an  inch.  A  hard, 
tough  soil  requires  more  suction  than  one  that  is  easily  worked.  It  is 
measured  from  the  heel  of  the  land  side  to  the  surface  upon  which  the 
share  is  resting  evenly.  Means  are  usually  provided  for  quickly  chang- 
ing suction. 

All  springs  should  be  kept  at  the  proper  tension  for  easy  handling  of 
the  levers  to  which  they  are  attached.  Always  keep  the  plow  leveled  when 
the  bottom  is  in  the  ground.  For  any  one  depth  of  plowing  there  is  just 
one  position  for  the  front  furrow- wheel  lever.  This  is  of  more  importance 
on  the  gang  than  on  the  sulky. 

If  in  stony  ground,  the  floating  feature  of  the  foot-lift  plows  should  be 
set  so  that  in  case  an  obstruction  is  hit  the  plow  bottom  will  not  be 
locked  rigidly  in  the  frame.  Making  use  of  this  device  will  save  broken 
eveners  and  a  nasty  fall  for  the  operator  more  than  once. 

The  hitch  often  gives  trouble.  The  horses  should  be  neither  too  far 
apart  nor  too  close.  If  it  is  the  former  the  line  of  draft  will  be  out  too 
far,  and  if  the  latter  the  horses  will  not  be  able  to  do  good  work.  The 
right-hand  horse  should  not  be  compelled  to  walk  in  the  plowed  ground. 

On  the  high-lift  riding  plow  attach  the  tongue  and  connecting  rod  in 
such  a  manner  that  both  furrow  wheels  will  run  straight  ahead.  The 
hitch  is  often  so  arranged  that  a  sliight  lead  from  the  land  is  necessary 
for  the  front  furrow  wheel  of  the  sulky,  and  toward  the  land  if  a  gang. 
At  the  same  time  the  rear  furrow  wheel  is  set  with  a  slight  lead  from  the 
land.  This  lead  is  necessary  whenever  a  point  of  hitch  is  more  than  a 
few  inches  outside  of  the  true  line  of  draft.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
more  than  three  horses  on  sulkies  and  four  on  gang  plows  should  never 
be  used. 

Draft  of  riding,  plows  should  be  very  little  if  at  all  more  than  for  the 
same  size  walking  plow.  This  is  obtained  by  carrying  the  weight  of  the 
plow  and  the  furrow  slice  on  the  wheels.  The  importance  of  proper  ad- 
justment can  thus  be  seen  readily. 

On  engine  gangs  these  same  adjustments  are  found,  only  applied  dif- 
ferently. One  adjustment  in  particular  deserves  mention — that  is,  the 
method  of  hitch.  Straight  chains,  cross  chains  and  the  semirigid  type  of 
steel  bars  are  all  used.  On  the  smaller  gangs  the  latter  is  very  common. 
Care.shottld  be  taken  to  see  that  no  parts  bind.  When  a  plow  must  be 
set  over  some  distance  from  the  line  of  draft  of  the  tractor,  the  cross 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


291 


chain  is  better  than  the  straight.  At  other  times  use  the  straight  chains 
if  a  steel  bar  hitch  is  not  on  the  plow.  The  angle  of  hitch  should  be  such 
that  the  tractor  does  not  tend  to  pull  the  plow  into  the  ground;  instead, 
it  should  lift  up.  Of  course,  the  entire  weight  should  not  be  taken  off 
the  wheels.  The  angle  of  hitch  must  be  determined  for  each  particular 
outfit.  Be  very  careful  to  arrange  the  hitch  so  that  the  wheels  will  not 
track  on  the  next  round.  This  will  prevent  unduly  packing  the  ground. 
Set  the  center  of  the  coulter  above  the  plow  point  and  high  enough  to 
swing  from  side  to  side.  The  cut  outside  of  the  land  side  can  vary  from 
one-fourth  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  If  in  rocky  soil,  and  not  plowing 
more  than  six  inches  deep,  rolling  coulters  can  be  used  as  a  safeguard 
against  buried  rocks.  This  is  of  special  importance  on  tractor  plows.  Set 
the  coulter  so  it  will  cut  about  one-half  inch  deeper  than  the  point  of  the 
plow  and  will  swing  across  in  front  of  the  point. 


T~    s 

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, 

i 

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X 

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4 

/4//     bottoms 

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Fia.  226.    Diagram  showing  method  of  laying  off  the  ground  for  tractor  plowing. 

Laying  off  the  ground  for  tractor  plowing  is  very  important.  The 
accompanying  diagram  shows  a  method  that  has  proven  very  successful. 
Set  the  stakes  50  feet  from  the  fence  or  edge  of  the  field.  This  distance 
can  vary  from  30  to  100  feet.  Starting  at  one  corner  with  a  single  bot- 
tom, plow  a  light  furrow  across  the  short  end.  This  will  serve  as  a  guide 
to  go  by  in  raising  or  lowering  the  bottoms.  With  all  bottoms  down, 
plow  the  long  way.  Do  the  same  thing  on  the  other  two  sides.  Previous 
to  the  first  round,  or  at  this  time,  stake  off  the  fields  into  narrow  lands. 
The  width  of  these  lands  is  often  100  feet;  although  many  farmers  lay 
off  their  lands  for  a  certain  number  of  rounds,  less  the  width  of  one  or 
more  14-inch  furrows,  to  offset  any  unevenness  in  plowing  that  may 


292 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


creep  in.  In  this  way  very  little  time  will  be  spent  going  empty 
across  ends.  The  border  is  plowed  out  last,  usually  throwing  in  one 
year  and  out  the  next.  Another  method  is  to  start  in  the  center  and  plow 
around  without  lifting  the  bottoms.  This  method  has  the  disadvantage 
of  leaving  corners  that  must  be  plowed  out  later  with  horse  plows.  (See 
"Plows,"  in  index.) 


FIG.  227.   The  single  disk. 


FIG.  228,     The  double  disk. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


293 


Disk  Harrows. 

These  machines  are  indispensible  in  this  section  of  the  country.  While 
made  in  various  sizes,  the  16-inch  disk  seems  to  be  the  best.  From  8  to 
24  disks  are  used,  the  following  being  very  common:  14  by  16  and 
16  by  16. 

Bearings  are  either  of  oil-soaked  wood  or  chilled  iron,  and  are  very 
important.  The  oiling  device  must  be  of  good  construction  and  should 
be  handy. 

The  full  blade  is  better  than  the  cutaway  or  spading  for  a  single  disk. 
If  double,  the  cutaway  is  commonly  preferred.  The  notched  parts  of  the 
disk  do  not  cut  into  soil,  but  the  unnotched  portions  will  go  deeper  than 
the  full  blade.  With  a  double  disk  the  ground,  is  really  gone  over  twice. 

Attachments  can  be  purchased  to  place  around  the  seat  of  a  double 
disk.  These  ought  to  be  used  more,  for  a  jar  could  easily  throw  the 
operator  between  the  front  and  rear  gangs. 

Tongue  trucks  or  fore  carriages  make  a  harrow  more  convenient. 
They  can  then  be  used  without  a  tongue,  tongue  set  in  the  center,  or  set 
over  for  three  horses.  However,  many  harrows  are  sold  without  the  fore 
carriage. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  By  setting  over  the  tongue  when  using  a 
three-horse  team  side  draft  will  not  be  a  troublesome  factor. 

Better  work  can  be  obtained  by  lapping,  although  this  requires  more 
time.  The  gangs  must  be  set  at  different  angles  if  one  gang  is  passing 
over  soft  ground  and  the  other  gang  is  in  undisked  land. 

As  the  work  done  by  a  disk  blade  depends  upon  their  penetration, 
the  governing  factors  are  as  follows:  the  line  of  draft,  angle  at  which 
the  gangs  are  set,  curvature  and  sharpness  of  the  disk  blades,  and 
weight  of  the  harrow. 

Transport  trucks  are  of  considerable  value  whenever  the  conditions 
are  such  that  the  harrow  must  be  hauled  some  distance  across  meadows 
or  over  rocky  roads.  They  make  it  easier  to  draw  the  harrow  by  hand 
in  the  shed.  (See  "Disk  Harrow,"  in  index.) 


Fio.  229.    The  smoothing  or  spike-tooth  harrow. 


294 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  230.     The  smoothing  harrow  used  as  a  drag. 


FIG.   231.    A  land  roller. 
SMOOTHING   HARROWS. 

Often  called  spike-tooth  or  drag  harrows.  They  are  made  of  pipe, 
U-bar  or  wood  frames.  There  is  very  little  difference  between  the  first 
two ;  the  latter  is  not  quite  as  good.  Teeth  are  made  in  two  sizes,  %  -  and 
%-inch,  with  round,  square  or  diamond-shaped  cross  section.  Tooth 
fasteners  are  usually  constructed  so  that  the  teeth  will  not  be  lost  if 
the  fasteners  become  loose.  On  different  harrows  the  teeth  per  foot  width 
of  ground  passed  over  varies  from  five  to  eight,  and  on  lever  harrows 
the  teeth  can  be  angled  to  obtain  the  work  desired. 

Harrow  carts  permit  the  operator  to  ride  without  unduly  adding  to 
the  draft.  Wide  tires  and  good  bearings  should  be  looked  for  when  pur- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  295 

chasing.  It  might  be  well  to  mention  in  this  connection  that  harrow 
carts  can  also  be  attached  to  weeders  and  spring  harrows. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  The  teeth  can  be  slanted  for  smoothing,  and 
set  almost  straight  up  and  down  for  breaking  clods.  They  are  used  to 
break  up  clods,  cover  seeds  sown  broadcast,  form  dust  mulches,  kill  weeds 
just  starting,  and  to  cultivate  a  few  of  the  crops  while  they  are  still 
small. 

For  heavy  work  the  %-inch  tooth  is  better  than  the  %-inch.  Har- 
rows 10  to  15  feet  wide  require  three  horses;  if  more  than  15  feet,  four 
horses  are  necessary. 

One  point  that  is  almost  invariably  overlooked  is  the  fact  that  the 
position  of  the  teeth  can  be  changed  in  the  fasteners.  Two  edges  of  a 
square  or  diamond-shaped  tooth  should  be  made  use  of  before  the  harrow 
is  discarded.  (See  "Harrow,"  in  index.) 

Land  Rollers. 

Alfalfa  requires  a  firm  seed  bed,  so  this  machine  is  quite  a  factor 
in  the  preparation  of  the  ground. 

Two  general  kinds  of  surfaces  are  used — the  smooth  and  the  cor- 
rugated. The  latter  is  made  in  many  different  styles,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  tubular,  V-shaped,  and  so-called,  crowfoot  wheels,  or  a 
combination  of  V-shaped  and  notched  disks.  The  subsurface  packer  will 
not  be  discussed. 


Fia.  232.     Another  type  of  land  roller. —  [Courtesy  The  Dunham  Company.] 


296 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   233.    A  double  land  roller.  —[Courtesy  Dunham  Company.] 
PLANTING. 

Seeders. 


Fia.  234.     Alfalfa-  and  grass-seed  drill. 

Packers  with  V-shaped  wheels  are  built  single  and  in  tandem.  They 
can  also  be  had  in  a  three-gang  form,  like  the  others,  in  from  12-  to  15-ft. 
widths.  Weight  pans  are  placed  on  some  of  the  machines.  As  a  rule, 
the  weight  of  the  machine  is  sufficient.  Bearings  are  of  oil-soaked  wood 
or  of  the  roller  variety.  If  of  wood  very  little  precaution  is  usually  taken 
to  keep  out  the  dirt. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


297 


OPERATION  AND  CARE.  The  packer  or  roller  is  used  primarily  to  firm 
the  soil  and  pulverize  the  clods.  Smooth-drum  rollers  must  be  followed 
by  a  spike-tooth  harrow;  therefore  one  of  the  other  types  is  preferable. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  go  on  the  field  when  too  wet,  and  to  pay  some 
attention  to  the  bearings.  Two  horses  are  commonly  used  on  the  8-foot 
machine.  (See  "Roller,"  in  index.) 

Broadcast  seeding  has  been  known  since  the  time  crops  were  first 
planted.  Even  now  the  first  method  of  seeding  by  hand  is  resorted  to  for 
small  patches  of  ground.  To-day  there  are  several  broadcast  machines 
on  the  market,  the  names  of  which  will  suffice:  the  knapsack,  wheel- 
barrow, endgate  narrow-tread  broadcast,  and  wide-tread  broadcast  seed- 
ers. In  addition  there  are  seeding  attachments  for  many  machines. 
These  will  be  discussed  later. 

The  broadcast  seeders  as  commonly  built  plant  alfalfa  seed  too 
thickly.  Knapsack  and  endgate  seeders  are  seldom  used  for  alfalfa. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.    Look  under  seeding  attachments. 


FIG.   235.    Grass  seeder  often  used  in  seeding  alfalfa 

Seeding  Attachments. 

These  can  be  placed  on  disk  harrows,  weeders,  alfalfa  cultivators,  and 
grain  drills. 

A  hopper  is  often  attached  to  one  or  both  gangs  of  a  disk  harrow  if 
one  gang  laps  one-half.  The  feed  shaft  is  driven  by  a  chain  from  one 
gang  bolt.  Seed  hoppers  about  10  Vz  feet  long  are  placed  on  many  weed- 
ers, the  feed  shaft  being  driven  from  one  of  the  barrow  cart  wheels.  The 
cut  gives  a  general  idea  of  how  the  attachment  is  put  on. 

Grain-drill  attachments  are  placed  in  front  of  the  regular  hopper  and 
the  seed  is  carried  down  to  the  ground  through  the  regular  feed  tubes. 
However,  they  are  often  poorly  constructed  and  after  a  few  years  be- 
come unfit  for  use. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  With  the  machines  and  attachments  as  above 
described  the  seed  is  covered  at  the  same  time  it  is  sown.  This  makes 


298 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   236.    Weeder  with  seeder  attachment. 

harrowing  later  unnecessary,  which  is  often  too  late  on  account  of  the 
changes  in  the  weather.  The  weeder  and  the  broadcast  seeders  equipped 
with  cultivator  covering- shovels,  cover  the  most  ground. 

For  the  first  few  rounds  it  is  a  good  plan  to  watch  carefully  the 
amount  seeded;  the  gauge  may  need  changing.  Working  crosswise  to 
the  direction  of  the  harrowing,  the  seed  will  be  planted  at  a  more  uni- 
form depth.  This  also  applies  to  drills.  Other  points  to  watch  are  the 
clogging  of  the  feed  cup  by  some  foreign  substance  and  the  amount  of 
seed  in  the  hopper. 

Drills. 

When  grain  drills  are  used  for  sowing  alfalfa  cross-drilling  is  com- 
monly practiced.  Due  to  the  inaccuracy  of  grain  drills,  depth  of  plant- 
ing, and  space  between  disks,  alfalfa-  and  grass-seed  drills  were  put  on 
the  market.  These  drills  are  similar  to  the  grain  drills,  only  smaller  in 
size,  and  need  very  little  description. 

Single-disk  furrow  openers,  4  or  5  inches  apart  and  20  or  16  in  num- 
ber, are  used.  Sometimes  small  press  wheels  are  attached.  Both  wheels 
should  drive. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.    Hitch  so  the  drill  will  run  level. 

The  importance  of  clean  seed  can  not  be  overemphasized  if  inaccurate 
feeding  or  twist'ed  feed  shafts  are  to  be  guarded  against  (not  to  men- 
tion fields  free  from  weeds).  Feed  cups  are  not  built  to  handle  straw, 
nails,  nuts,  and  similar  substances. 

When  through  for  the  season  be  sure  that  all  feed  cups  are  empty. 
Oftentimes  seed  left  in  the  drill  germinates  and  causes  trouble  later. 
This  is  applicable  to  all  drills. 

One  or  two  gauges  are  always  placed  on  the  hopper.  Even  if  accurate 
when  new  the  chances  are  that  they  will  not  remain  so.  For  this  and 
another  reason  mentioned  later  it  is  well  to  test  the  accuracy  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  299 

Jack  up  the  machine  so  the  wheels  do  not  rest  on  the  ground.  Place 
seed  in  the  hopper;  set  the  gauge  at  a  certain  amount  per  acre,  and 
then  turn  one  of  the  wheels  for  200  revolutions.  Catch  the  seed  in  paper 
sacks,  and  then  weigh.  If  the  cups  sow  at  different  rates  it  will  be  shown 
up  at  this  time,  and  then  the  necessary  steps  can  be  taken  to  remedy 
the  difficulty. 

The  following  example  explains  more  clearly  how  the  test  is  carried 
on:  t 

Conditions:  16  by  5  drill;  40-inch  wheel;  gauge  set  to  sow  15  pounds 
to  the  acre;  wheels  are  turned  200  revolutions.  The  amount  collected  in 
the  sacks  will  be  a  certain  part  of  the  15  pounds.  The  amount  that 
should  be  collected  can  be  calculated  thus: 

Circumference  in  feet  =  diameter  of  wheel  in  feet  X  31/?. 

=  40  y2  x  3y7. 

=  10.5  feet.* 

Remember  that  the  wheels  were  turned  200  times. 

Distance  gone  =  circumference  X  200. 

=  10.5  X  200  =  2100  feet. 

Width  of  ground  seeded  =  number  of  disk  X  distance  apart. 
=  16  X  6. 
=  80  inches,  or  6%  feet. 

Area  in  sq.  ft.  seeded  =  width  seeded  X  distance  gone. 
=  6.67  X  2100. 

Per  cent  of  an  acre  seeded  =  area  seeded  X  100. 

=  14,000  sq.  ft.  in  an  acre  X  100. 
-  14,000  X  100  -  32.2%. 


43,560 

As  this  per  cent  of  an  acre  was  covered,  only  32.2  per  cent  of  15 
pounds  should  be  found  in  the  sacks : 

32.2  X  15  =  4.83  pounds. 
4.83 
16   (number  of  furrow  openers)  =  .302  pounds  per  feed  cup. 

If  the  amount  obtained  in  the  test  varies  from  this  by  an  appreciable 
amount  it  will  be  well  to  repeat  the  test  and  then  set  the  gauge  lever, 
making  the  proper  allowance. 

Drills  are  often  used  to  reseed  bare  spots  and  old  fields. 

The  flute-feed  grain  drills  can  be  adapted  by  shutting  off  the  feed 
entirely  or  almost  so.  On  the  double-run  feed-cup  type,  reducers  for  de- 
creasing the  size  of  the  opening  are  added.  Such  use  of  grain  drills  has 
already  been  commented  upon. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  all  bearings  oiled,  boots  and  scrapers  adjusted 
properly,  and  to  clean  out  the  bearing  if  the  disk  fails  to  turn  easily,  and, 
if  need  be,  to  replace  with  a  new  bearing.  The  spring  tension  on  furrow 
openers  should  be  kept  uniform.  Never  use  the  drill  with  a  few  of  the 
disks  running  deeper  than  the  others. 

Without  doubt  the  alfalfa-  and  grass-seed  drill  is  best,  but  it  is  too  ex- 
pensive for  small  fields.  Grain  drills  are  next,  probably,  in  point  of  use, 

*  Slide-rule  calculation.  * 


300 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


closely  followed  by  machines  that  can  be  equipped  with  seeding  attach- 
ments. Broadcast,  knapsack  and  wheelbarrow  seeders  come  last. 

The  drills  have  one  advantage  over  seeders  in  that  usually  a  lesser 
amount  of  seed  per  acre  is  necessary. 

Planting  in  rows.  This  practice  is  not  followed  extensively  in  this 
country,  although  a  few  farmers  in  Kansas  have  fields  so  planted.  In 
some  localities  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  double-row,  leaving  two 
holes  of  the  grain  drill  open  and  stopping  up  3  or  4.  The  double  rows 
will  then  be  8  inches  apart  (disks  are  spaced  8  inches),  while  the  space 
left  for  cultivating  will  be  32  or  40  inches  apart. 

Cultivators  are  good  for  keeping  down  the  weeds,  which  are  trouble- 
some the  first  year.  A  spring-tooth  harrow  or  weeder  will  do  if  a  few 
teeth  are  removed  where  the  rows  come.  (See  "Seeders,"  in  index.) 


FIG.  237.    Spike-tooth  disk,   or  alfalfa  renovator. 
CULTIVATION. 

Disk  Harrows. 

In  the  spring  before  the  plants  are  very  high  the  regular  disk  is  often 
used  as  an  alfalfa  cultivator.  The  gangs  are  set  straight,  or  nearly  so, 
without  any  additional  weight  being  added  to  the  pans.  If  it  turns  off 
dry  after  such  a  cultivation  more  harm  than  good  results.  This  machine 
is  seldom  used  in  this  way  at  the  present  time. 

Alfalfa  Renovators. 

Porcupine  harrows  is  another  name.  The  machine  resembles  a  disk 
harrow,  the  difference  being  that  spikes  radiate  from  the  center  instead 
of  having  a  full  blade.  It  was  about  the  first  alfalfa  cultivating  machine 
brought  out,  and  was  in  answer  to  a  demand  for  a  machine  that  would 
destroy  the  weeds  and  loosen  up  the  surface. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


301 


FIG.  238.    Alfalfa  cultivator. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  Much  the  same  as  for  the  ordinary  disk,  which 
has  been  discussed  under  "Preparation  of  the  Ground"  and  immediately 
above.  Trouble  with  warping  is  often  experienced,  and  it  has  been  found 
best  not  to  split  the  crowns  unless  conditions  are  exceptional. 

It  is  well  to  mention  at  this  time  that  only  thoroughly  rooted  alfalfa 
of  a  year's  growth  or  more  should  be  cultivated.  If  the  plants  are  too 
young  much  harm  may  result. 

The  use  of  this  machine  seems  to  be  on  the  decline  in  this  state  as  com- 
pared with  the  special  spring-tooth  harrows  and  alfalfa  cultivators 
mentioned  below. 


FIG.   239.    Another   type  of   alfalfa    cultivator. 
[Courtesy  of  Light  Draft  Harrow  Company.] 


302 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  303 

Alfalfa  Cultivators. 

Several  different  machines  are  called  alfalfa  cultivators.  Here,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  applied  to  the  machine  described  in  the  cut.  The  teeth,  14 
in  number,  are  hung  independently  in  the  frame  and  are  under  spring 
pressure.  The  amount  of  pressure  can  be  regulated  by  a  lever.  The 
teeth  are  of  such  shape  that  only  rounded  edges  touch  the  alfalfa  plants. 
The  width  cultivated  is  6%  feet. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE:  The  teeth  pass  to  the  side  of  plants,  stirring 
up  the  ground  and  tearing  out  the  small  weeds.  This  machine  is  giving 
good  results,  although  the  draft,  as  on  all  alfalfa  cultivating  machines,  is 
quite  heavy.  Two  horses  are  necessary. 

Spring-tooth  Harrows. 

These  are  common  in  the  East  but  very  seldom  found  in  Kansas.  The 
cut  shows  a  spring-tooth  harrow  with  special  alfalfa  teeth.  The  regular 
spring-tooth  harrow  was  tried  out  by  an  enterprising  farmer,  who  found 
that  better  work  could  be  done  if  the  shank  was  rounded  and  the  blunt 


Fia.  241.     The  modern  manure  spreader. 

point  changed  to  a  spear-head  shape.  These  machines  are  built  in  sec- 
tions. Two  sections  of  21  and  22  teeth  cover  6  feet;  three  sections  of 
31  and  33  teeth  cover  9  feet. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  When  cultivating,  the  teeth  act  very  much  like 
the  teeth  of  alfalfa  cultivators  already  described.  The  teeth  will  spring 
back  if  caught  on  an  obstruction,  depth  being  regulated  by  levers.  A 
horse  for  each  section  is  necessary,  and  if  the  teeth  are  set  so  very  deep 
more  power  will  be  needed.  This  harrow,  with  the  special  form  of  al- 
falfa teeth,  has  only  been  sold  for  the  last  four  years.  It  is  gaining 
favor  rapidly  as  an  alfalfa  cultivator.  Good  results  have  been  reported. 

This  same  harrow,  either  in  the  regular  form  or  the  alfalfa  type,  can 
be  used  as  an  ordinary  harrow.  The  farmer  owning  the  machine  shown  in 
the  cut  has  used  it  in  the  spring  on  fall-plowed  ground.  He  reports  that 
better  work  was  done  with  it  than  with  the  smoothing  harrow,  although 
less  ground  was  covered  in  a  day.  (See  "Cultivators,"  in  index.) 


304 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


MAINTAINING   SOIL  FERTILITY. 


Manure  Spreaders. 

Several  features  of  the  manure  spreader  are  important.  Endless 
aprons  are  found  on  more  spreaders  to-day  than  either  the  return  or 
web  types,  although  it  is  more  easily  fouled  and  it  is  difficult  to  unload 
evenly  at  the  last.  It  is  preferred  on  account  of  its  simplicity  as  com- 
pared with  the  web  apron. 

As  little  as  possible  of  the  mechanism  should  be  in  motion  when  the 
beater  or  cylinder  is  thrown  out  of  gear. 

Apron  drives  are  of  two  kinds — ratchet  and  worm.  Both  have  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  The  ratchet  drive  gives  a  great  range  of 
speeds,  but  is  more  complicated  and  the  motion  is  intermittent,  thus  in- 
creasing the  chance  of  breakage.  Racing  when  ascending  a  hill  with  a 
load  is  prevented  on  a  few  machines  by  either  a  brake  or  some  other 
device.  The  power  is  also  taken  from  the  cylinders. 


FIG.   242.    The  lime  and  fertilizer  sower. 

The  worm  drive,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  constant  motion,  and  the 
power  is  taken  direct  from  one  of  the  rear  wheels,  but  the  apron  has  only 
three  or  four  speeds,  and  the  gears  are  apt  to  wear  out  quickly.  To 
prevent  this  rapid  wearing  a  few  companies  enclose  their  worm  gear 
in  an  oil-tight  case.  Both  styles  of  drives  are  very  common. 

The  low-down  feature  of  the  construction  makes  loading  much  easier. 
On  many  farms  obstructions  of  one  kind  or  another  make  it  almost  im- 
possible to  use  machines  of  the  lowest  type,  for  the  clearance  is  not  suffi- 
cient. 

Wide-spread  attachments  of  widely  different  design  have  been  brought 
out  within  the  past  two  years.  The  object  is  to  spread  wider  than  the 
box,  so  one  trip  across  the  field  will  cover  more  ground.  No  reports  as 
yet  have  come  in,  so  a  comparison  can  not  be  made. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  305 

Capacity  ratings  are  not  all  uniform,  so  comparisons  should  be  made 
on  the  calculated  contents  of  the  box  level  full,  providing  that  there  is 
1.25  cubic  feet  in  one  bushel. 

If  loaded  too  high  the  distribution  is  apt  to  be  uneven,  regardless  of 
how  good  a  pulverizing  or  leveling  rake  is  on  the  spreader. 

If  the  apron  becomes  too  loose  it  can  be  tightened  up  by  two  bolts,  one 
on  each  side,  and  at  the  front  end  of  the  machine. 

Lubrication  is  extremely  important  and  should  never  be  neglected. 
(See  "Manure  Spreaders,"  in  index.) 

Lime  and  Fertilizer  "Sowers. 

These  are  two-wheeled  machines  from  6  to  10  feet  wide  and  have  hop- 
pers holding  from  7%  to  15  bushels.  The  amount  sown,  ranging  from 
5000  to  6000  pounds  of  dry  stock  per  acre,  is  regulated  by  the  size  of  the 
openings  in  the  bottom.  An  attachment  11  feet  wide  is  made  for  attach- 
ing to  the  rear  end  of  wagons.  A  two-canvas  conducting  apron  is  placed 
so  that  the  material  is  dropped  to  within  8  inches  of  the  ground.  The 
amount  per  acre  can  be  varied  from  400  to  4000  pounds. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  Whenever  possible  the  lime  should  be  screened 
before  placing  in  the  machine.  Many  of  the  lime  and  fertilizer  sowers 
have  screens  built  in.  When  using  such  a  machine  it  is  always  best  to 
take  advantage  of  the  screen.  This  will  prevent  clogging  of  the  hopper 
and  feed  opening.  (See  "Lime  Spreader,"  in  index.) 

HARVESTING   MACHINERY. 

Mowers. 

The  modern  mower  has  become  a  standard  machine  and  varies  only 
in  slight  details.  Various  cutting  devices  have  been  patented,  but  they 
have  nearly  all  given  way  to  the  reciprocating  knife  and  stationary 
guards. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  make  a  center-cut  machine,  in 
which  the  cutter  was  carried  in  front  of  the  machine.  The  prime  object 
sought  in  these  machines  was  to  eliminate  side  draft  and  keep  the  team 
from  tramping  the  hay  into  the  stubble.  This  is  offset  by  the  horses 
walking  in  the  standing  grass,  so  that  very  few  of  these  machines  are 
made. 

Mowers  may  be  had  in  sizes  from  the  one-horse  S1/^-  to  4-ft.  cut  up  to 
the  6-  and  8-ft.  cut  in  the  two-horse  size. 

The  driving  power  of  a  mower  is  determined  to  some  extent  by  the 
weight  of  the  machine  and  the  construction  of  the  drivewheels.  The 
drivewheels  should  be  from  3%  to  5  inches  broad  and  must.be  provided 
with  good  lugs.  They  should  also  be  provided  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  pawls  to  engage  the  ratchets,  so  there  will  be  no  lost  motion  between 
the  main  wheels  and  the  sickle,  as  this  would  allow  the  guards  to  fill 
with  grass  before  the  sickle  started.' 

Roller  bearings  and  a  good  method  of  oiling  is  necessary  for  light 
draft. 

The  majority  of  mowers  have  two  sets  of  gears,  although  some  have 
three,  and  others  have  only  one  set  of  gears  and  a  chain  drive.  The 

—11 


306 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  307 

gears  should  be  of  ample  size  to  withstand  the  strain.  Warped  gears 
are  to  be  looked  out  for,  as  they  wear  and  give  trouble  more  quickly  and 
the  noise  they  make  is  annoying.  Steel-cut  gears  would  be  a  good  thing 
in  a  mower,  but  the  first  cost  seems  to  be  too  great.  The  small  pinion 
on  the  pitman  shaft  usually  wears  out  first,  so  means  are  usually  pro- 
vided so  that  it  can  be  kept  in  mesh.  '  Ball  bearings  or  hardened  steel 
washers  are  used  to  take  up  end  thrust  due  to  the  bevel  gears. 

Chain  drives  on  mowers  do  not  give  as  good  service  as  gears,  for  they 
wear  out  more  quickly  and  have  more  play. 

Nearly  all  standard  makes  of  mowers  have  the  principal  wearing 
parts  replaceable.  The  majority  of  them  have  brass  bronze  composition- 
metal  bushings  at  both  ends  of  the  pitman  shaft.  If  the  bearings  become 
worn  or  loose  it  is  only  necessary  to  replace  the  bushing  with  a  new  one. 

The  wrist-pin  bearings  are  generally  made  solid,  as  it  is  hard  to  keep 
the  nuts  tight  on  a  split  box  at  this  place  on  account  of  the  vibration. 
Removable  bushings  are  usually  provided,  and  in  most  machines  these 
bushings  are  free  to  turn. 

The  most  common  method  of  securing  the  pitman  to  the  sickle  head 
is  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  This  form  of  connection  seems  to  be  the 
most  convenient  and  the  easiest  to  keep  tight.  This  bearing  should  not 
be  kept  too  tight,  as  it  not  only  increases  friction,  but  causes  the  sickle  back 
to  bend  up  and  down  at  each  stroke  of  the  sickle,  and  is  apt  to  cause 
it  to  break  off.  Neither  should  it  be  left  loose  enough  to  have  much 
play,  or  the  socket  will  soon  be  beaten  into  an  oblong  shape;  then  the 
bearing  can  not  be  kept  tight  until  the  damaged  parts  are  replaced  by 
new  ones. 

CARE  OF  THE  MOWER.  Heavy  draft  in  a  mower  is  caused  by  three 
things — poor  lubrication,  dull  sickles,  and  nonalignment.  The  remedy 
for  the  two  former  is  obvious,  but  the  latter  is  often  overlooked.  The 
pitman  and  sickle  should  work  in  a  straight  line.  If  the  outer  end  of 
the  cutter  bar  has  dropped  back,  part  of  the  power  is  taken  up  by  friction 
on  the  mower.  All  cutter  bars  need  an  occasional  realignment;  that  is, 
the  wrist  pin,  sickle  head,  and  outer  end  of  the  sickle  should  be  brought 
into  a  straight  line.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  having  one  of  the 
hinge  pins  in  the  shoe  set  in  an  eccentric  cam,  and  by  changing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hinge  bar  and  the  pitman  head ;  ot  it  may  be  done  to  a  limited 
amount  by  shortening  the  drag  bar  and  lengthening  the  push  bar.  The 
common  notion  that  the  cutter  bar  can  be  aligned  by  shortening  the  drag 
bar  or  lengthening  the  push  bar  alone  is  erroneous  and  should  be  dis- 
carded, as  the  shortening  of  the  drag  bar  affects  the  centering  of  the 
sickle.  If  there  is  no  other  provision  for  aligning  the  bar  a  new  shoe 
or  hinge  pin  should  be  purchased.  However,  a  more  or  less  skilled  me- 
chanic or  careful  workman  may  align  the  cutter  bar  by  removing  one 
of  the  hinge  pins  and  bringing  the  outer  end  of  the  bar  up  in  position 
and  filing  one  side  of  the  hole  out  with  a  round  file  until  the  pin  can  be 
replaced  and  bushed  up  on  the  loose  side  of  the  pin.  The  bushing  should 
be  notched  to  keep  it  in  place. 

CENTERING  THE  SICKLE.  If  a  new  pitman  is  to  be  replaced,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  get  the  new  one  the  same  length  as  the  old,  in  order 


308  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

to  have  the  knives  center  in  the  guards.  By  centering  we  mean  to  have 
the  knives  pass  to  the  same  position  in  the  guards  either  way.  In  ma- 
chines having  the  push  bar  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  drag  bar,  cen- 
tering may  be  accomplished  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  latter. 

CAUSES  OF  UNEVEN  STUBBLE  AND  SIDE  DRAFT.  Side  draft  is  not  caused 
by  the  cutter  bar  lagging  at  the  outer  end,  as  many  farmers  suppose, 
but  may  be  due  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  causes:  sickle  not  cen- 
tering, guards  bent,  sickle  sections  loose  or  nicked,  ledger  plates  loose 
or  nicked,  or  the  clip  over  the  cycle  being  worn. 

The  first  cause  has  already  been  discussed.  One  of  the  requisites  of 
a  new  cutter  bar  is  that  the  ledger  plates  on  the  guards  shall  all  be  in 
line  when  it  leaves  the  factory,  but  they  may  be  used  only  a  short  time 
until  some  of  the  guards  are  bent.  If  one  is  out  of  line,  the  shear  cut 
that  the  sickle  should  have  is  destroyed.  If  one  of  the  guards  is  bent  up, 
the  sickle  may  be  held  off  of  several  ledger  plates,  and  the  condition  is 
much  worse.  By  sighting  along  the  guards  it  can  be  seen  whether  or  not 
one  has  been  bent.  A  few  blows  from  the  hammer  or  a  large  monkey 
wrench  on  the  end  of  a  guard  will  remedy  matters. 


Fia.  244.     The  mower  with  windrowing  and  bunching  attachments. 

If  a  section  on  the  sickle  becomes  loose  or  is  nicked  it  loses  its  shear 
cut  and  should  be  replaced. 

Ledger  plates  becoming  loose,  nicked  or  badly  worn  materially  offset 
the  cutting  qualities  and  deserve  immediate  attention. 

The  clips  over  the  sickle  may  become  worn  so  they  do  not  hold  the 
sections  down  on  the  ledger  plates.  These  plates  are  made  of  malleable 
iron  or  steel  and  may  be  bent  down  with  a  hammer.  However,  if  new 
and  old  sickles  are  used  in  the  same  machine  the  clips  must  be  set  for 
the  newest  sickle  unless  new  sections  are  put  on  the  old  sickle  where 
the  clips  wear. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  mowers  should  be  housed  when  not  in  use, 
as  it  lengthens  the  life  and  greatly  enhances  the  working  qualities  of 
the  machine.  (See  "Mower,"  in  index.) 

The  Clover  Windrower. 

The  clover  windrower,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  clover  rake,  is 
sometimes  used  with  alfalfa.  This  consists  of  a  series  of  light  iron 
bars  of  unequal  length,  which  are  turned  up  at  the  rear  end.  The  long 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


309 


bars  are  attached  next  to  the  mower,  and  decrease  in  length  to  the  outer 
end  of  the  cutter  bar.  The  cut  grass  falling  on  the  windrower  is  rolled 
off  at  the  inner  edge.  This  is  especially  valuable  in  cutting  alfalfa  for 
seed.  (See  "Windrower,"  in  index.) 

The  Sulky  Rake. 

The  sulky  or  common  hay  rake  may  be  had  in  sizes  from  G1/^  to  11  feet 
in  width  and  should  be  wide  enough  to  rake  two  full  swaths  cut  by  the 
mower.  They  are  made  either  hand  or  self  dump.  The  self -dump  rake 
has  a  foot  lever  which  engages  a  ratchet  in  the  wheels,  which  raises  the 
teeth  as  the  wheels  rotate.  When  the  teeth  are  raised  to  the  proper 
height  the  ratchet  is  automatically  released,  allowing  the  teeth  to  drop 
down.  This  type  of  rake  is  generally  preferred. 


FIG.  245.    The  sulky  rake. 


FIG.  246.   The  side-delivery  rake. 
[Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Co.] 


310 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


The  teeth  of  the  rake  are  made  of  spring  steel,  and  generally  have  one 
or  two  small  coils  near  the  upper  end  of  the  teeth  to  give  more  flexibility. 
They  may  have  either  pencil  or  chisel  points.  The  chisel  points  generally 
enter  the  hay  a  little  more  readily.  Cleaning  teeth  are  essential  to  good 
raking. 

Some  rakes  are  provided  with  a  short  tooth  at  either  side  to  keep  the 
hay  from  working  out  at  the  side.  These  are  especially  valuable  where 
the  hay  is  short  and  dry.  (See  "Rake,"  in  index.) 

Side-delivery  Rakes. 

The  side  delivery  rake  has  two  wheels  in  front  and  one  or  two  castor 
wheels  in  the  rear.  On  the  reel  type  the  reel  is  set  diagonally  with  the 
swath  and  revolves  backward,  rolling  the  hay  to  the  front  and  side  and 
delivering  it  at  the  side  in  a  loose  windrow.  The  reels  are  made  with 
two  or  three  bars  and  on  some  machines  are  made  reversible  for  tedding. 


FIG.  247.     The  iron  cap  for  protecting  sweep  rake  teeth. 
[Courtesy    Stowe   Supply   Company.] 

The  fork  type  of  side-delivery  rake  has  arms  with  forks  at  the  lower 
end,  which  are  worked  by  the  wheels  through  a  suitable  mechanism,  and 
throw  the  hay  to  front  and  side  of  the  machine.  Some  makes  of  these 
machines  are  also  reversible  for  tedding. 

The  main  advantages  of  the  side-delivery  rake  are  that  it  leaves  the 
windrow  suitable  for  satisfactory  operation  of  the  self  loader  and  that  the 
hay  will  cure  better.  (See  "Side-delivery  Rake,"  in  index.) 


FIG.   248.    The  two-wheeled  sweep  rake. 
[Courtesy  John   Deere  &   Company.] 

Sweep  Rakes. 

The  sweep  rake  may  be  a  simple  affair,  drawn  over  the  stubble  on 
skids  or  runners,  or  it  may  be  mounted  on  wheels  with  a  mechanism  for 
raising  the  teeth.  With  some  of  the  rakes  the  team  is  divided  and  one 
horse  placed  at  either  side,  while  others  have  the  team  hitched  to  a  tongue 
in  the  rear.  The  latter  type  is  the  more  expensive  and  the  harder  to 
guide.  Some  of  the  rakes  that  have  the  team  at  the  sides  also  have  pro- 
vision for  raising  the  teeth. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


311 


OPERATION.  The  main  principle  in  the  sweep  rake  is  the  long  teeth 
which  run  under  the  hay  and  carry  it  along.  They  are  unloaded  by  back- 
ing the  rake  from  under  the  hay. 

As  the  rakes  are  made  of  wood  they  should  be  kept  well  painted  and 
nuts  kept  tight.  (See  "Sweep  Rake,"  in  index.) 


FIG.   249.    The  three- wheeled  sweep  rake. 
[Courtesy  John  Deere  &  Company.] 


FIG.  250.     The  four-wheeled  sweep  rake. 
[Courtesy  Arizona  Experiment  Station.] 


FIG.  252.    The  hay  tedder. —  [Courtesy  Iowa  Experiment  Station.] 


312 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


313 


314 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Hay  Balers. 

These  machines  may  be  had  in  sizes  to  suit  the  purchaser,  from  the 
small  one-horse  sweep  press  to  the  larger  sizes  driven  by  power.  Many 
of  the  power  presses  have  a  gasoline  engine  attached  to  the  front  of  the 
baler. 

A  self-feed  is  desirable,  although  not  necessary,  on  the  small  press, 
but  the  larger  power  presses  can  not  be  operated  at  full  capacity  with- 
out one. 

OPERATION  AND  CARE.  Care  should  be  taken  in  hand  feeding  to  push 
the  tailings  down  and  get  the  feed  well  into  the  feed  chambers.  It  is  a 
very  dangerous  policy  to  use  one  foot  as  a  self  feeder. 

It  is  a  great  advantage  in  handling,  shipping  and  storing  hay  to  have 
the  bales  as  smooth  and  as  nearly  an  even  length  as  possible.  (See 
"Baling,"  in  index.) 

Stackers. 

The  field  stackers  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  overshot  and  the 
swinging  stacker.     The  overshot  stacker  has  a  row  of  teeth,  correspond- 
ing to  those  on  the  sweep  rake,  on 

I  i       the  end  of  a  long  arm  hinged  near 

the  ground.  By  means  of  a  rope 
and  pulleys  the  arm  and  teeth  are 
raised  to  a  vertical  position.  The 
hay  is  placed  upon  the  teeth  by 
pushing  it  on  with  a  sweep  rake 
and  backing  away  the  rake.  When 
the  teeth  of  the  stacker  are  raised 
to  a  vertical  position  the  hay  slides 
back  onto  the  stack.  With  the 
most  of  these  stackers  the  hay  can 
only  be  raised  to  a  certain  height. 
However,  there  is  at  least  one  make 
that  is  arranged  so  that  the  stacker 
arms  are  12  feet  long  when  the 
stacker  head  is  on  the  ground,  and 
the  arms  will  extend  up  to  25  feet, 
depending  upon  how  it  is  adjusted 
by  the  operator.  The  maximum 
height  at  which  the  hay  is  de- 
livered ranges  from  25  to  32  feet,  depending  on  the  size  used. 

The  combined  sweep  rake  and  stacker  is  constructed  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  whole  machine  is  used  as  a  sweep  rake.  When  a  load  is  collected 
it  is  raised  from  the  ground  and  run  up  to  the  stack.  As  the  machine  is 
approaching  the  stack  a  mechanism  is  thrown  in  gear  and  the  wheels 
turning  on  the  ground  raise  the  stacker  arms.  When  the  load  is  raised  it 
is  automatically  held  in  position  until  unloaded  onto  the  stack.  As  the 
machine  is  backed  from  the  stack  the  arms  recede.  This  machine 
may  be  used  as  a  stacker  in  conjunction  with  sweep  rakes.  Its  chief 
advantage  is  that  a  load  can  be  put  on  the  stack  at  any  place  desired. 


FIG.  254.    One  form  of  swinging  stacker. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


315 


FIG.  255.    Another  form  of  swinging  stacker. 


Fia.  256.   The  overshot  stacker. 

The  swinging  stacker  has  a  row  of  teeth  on  arms  which  may  be  raised 
to  any  height  and  locked  in  place  by  a  brake  engaging  the  rake.  Then 
it  may  swing  around  any  place  desired  and  the  load  dumped. 

The  Pole-and-boom  Stacker. 

This  type  of  stacker  is  generally  homemade  and  is  used  with  a  hay 
fork  for  unloading  from  wagons.  It  consists  of  an  upright  pole  and  a 
boom.  There  are  several  different  methods  used  to  hold  the  upright 


316 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


pole  in  position.  Sometimes  the  stacker  is  constructed  on  a  sled  or  skid 
so  it  can  be  moved  easily ;  again  the  pivot  is  secured  to  a  small  skid  so  the 
base  of  the  pole  may  be  moved,  the  top  of  the  pole  being  held  in  place 
by  guy  lines. 

The  stackers  which  are  built  on  a   sled  usually  have  a  long  boom 
pole,  which  is  secured  near  its  center  (by  a  hinge  joint)  to  the  top  of  the 


FIG.  257.    Combined  sweep  rake  and  stacker. 


.  258.    The  stacker  cart,  for  use  with  stacker  where  stacker  head  is  let  down  by 
brake.     The  rope  is  worked  into  the  ring  seen  below  the  seat. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


317 


upright,  one  end  being  secured  by  a  rope  or  cable  to  the  base  of  the  up- 
right, while  the  fork  is  used  on  the  other  end. 

This  type  of  stacker  can  not  be  used  to  build  very  high  stacks,  as  the 
weight,  being  carried  at  the  end  of  the  boom,  has  a  tendency  to  tip  the 
stacker  over. 

The  stackers  which  have  a  tall  upright,  and  the  boom  hinged  by  one 
end  at  a  distance  slightly  less  than  the  length  of  the  boom  from  its  top, 

have  the  upright  held  in  position  at 
the  top  by  guy  lines,  which  are 
screwed  to  a  ring.  The  base  of  the 
upright  is  set  in  a  socket  made  in  a 
skid,  so  the  back  of  the  stacker  can 
be  moved  without  lowering  it  to  the 
ground.  The  boom  is  held  in  posi- 
tion by  a  rope  and  tackle  running 
from  its  outer  end  to  the  top  of  the 
upright.  This  allows  the  boom  to  be 
raised  and  lowered  from  the  ground. 
The  upright  is  bent  a  little  over  the 
stack,  so  the  loaded  fork  tends  to 
swing  around  over  it. 

This  type  of  stacker  may  be  used 
to  build  stacks  up  to  35  or  40  feet  in 
height,  and  is  used  where  wagons 
are  unloaded  with  slings  or  forks. 

OPERATION.  One  end  of  the  rope 
which  raises  the  fork  is  screwed  to 
the  end  of  the  boom  and  runs  down 
through  a  pulley  fastened  to  the 
fork,  then  back  up  over  a  pulley 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  boom, 
then  through  a  pulley  secured  to  the 
upright  at  the  base  of  the  boom,  and 
then  over  a  pulley  at  the  base  of  the 
upright  and  out  along  the  side  of  the  stack  to  the  horse.  (See  "Stacker," 
in  index.) 

Hay  Loaders. 

In  general  there  are  two  types  of  hay  loaders.  The  fork  loader  and 
the  endless  apron  loader.  The  former  has  a  series  of  forks  and  oscillat- 
ing arms,  which  are  driven  by  chains,  gears  or  cranks  from  the  wheels, 
which  take  the  hay  off  of  the  ground  and  force  it  up  a  carrier  onto  the 
wagon.  The  latter  has  a  cylinder  with  protruding  teeth,  which  takes 
the  hay  off  the  ground,  and  it  is  then  raised  up  on  an  endless  apron. 
(See  "Hay  Loader,"  in  index.) 

Forks. 

There  are  at  least  four  types  of  hay  forks  in  use,  each  of  which  is 
adapted  to  certain  conditions.  The  single  harpoon  has  a  single  tine  with 
spurs  which  stand  out  at  right  angles  to  the  point.  These  are  tripped 


FIG.  259.    Pole  and  boom  stacker. 


318 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  260.     Gearless  or  fork  type  hay  loader. 
[Courtesy  Emerson-Brantingham  Implement  Company.] 


FIG.  261.     The  cylinder  type  hay  loader. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


319 


FIG.  262.  The  double  harpoon  hay 
fork. —  [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  & 
Bro.] 


FIG.  263.  The  single 
harpoon  hay  fork. — 
[Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers 
&  Bro.] 


when  it  is  desired  to  unload  the  fork.  The  double  harpoon  is  much  the 
same  except  that  it  has  two  tines.  Sometimes  these  are  used  in  pairs, 
making  a  four-tined  fork. 

The  Jackson  patent  or  derrick  fork  has  a  triangular  prone  made  of 
wood  with  an  iron  bale  hinged  close  to  the  piece  which  holds  the  tines,  and 
is  secured  to  the  vertex  of  the  triangle  by  a  clip  while  the  load  is  being 
raised.  To  unload  the  fork  the  clip  is  released  by  a  rope  from  the 
wagon  and  the  tines  turn  back,  allowing  the  hay  to  slide  off.  It  has 
four  tines,  which  are  set  at  right  angles  to  the  frame  and  curved 
under  it. 

The  grapple  fork  is  provided  with  tines  which  swing  toward  each 
other  like  ice  tongs,  firmly  gripping  the  hay.  The  tines  are  of  various 
lengths  to  suit  conditions,  and  vary  from  four  to  eight  in  number. 

USES.  The  single  harpoon  is  used  in  hay  that  is  long  and  hangs  to- 
gether well.  It  is  light  and  easily  handled.  The  double  harpoon  is  used 
under  much  the  same  conditions,  but  will  work  in  shorter  and  looser 
hay. 

The  Jackson  fork  is  used  in  any  kind  of  hay,  and  is  an  especial 
favorite  with  threshermen  in  handling  headed  grain.  It  is  simple  and 
easily  handled  with  a  little  experience.  The  grapple  fork  is  used  in 
short  hay  and  the  eight-tined  forks  are  sometimes  used  to  handle  man- 
ure. (See  "Forks,"  in  index.) 


320  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  264.    The  grapple  fork.— [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro. 


FIG.  265.    The  Jackson  or  derrick  hay  fork.— [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


FIG.  266.   The  hay  sling.— [Courtesy  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


321 


Slings. 
Hay  slings  are  webs  made  up  of  rope,  or  ropes  and  sticks,  which  are 

placed  under  the  load  of  hay  in  such  a  way  that  the  projecting  ends 
may  be'  brought  together  and  all  of  the  hay 
lying  in  the  sling  raised  at  one  time.  To  re- 
lease the  hay  a  spring  catch  is  provided  in  the 
middle  which  allows  the  sling  to  part  when 
tripped. 

OPERATION.  The  sling  is  placed  in  the  rack 
lengthwise  with  the  ends  secured,  and  hooks  to 
an  upright  at  the  ends  of  the  rack,  where  they 
are  convenient  to  reach  when  unloading.  A 
slingload  of  hay  is  put  on  the  wagon,  which 
may  be  as  much  as  1000  pounds  if  the  equip- 
ment is  strong  enough.  Then  another  sling  is 
placed  over  this,  and  so  on  until  a  full  wagon- 
load  is  on,  which  is  usually  three  slings.  The 
rope  and  the  derrick,  or  the  barn  equipment, 
usually  has  two  pulley  blocks,  which  have 
hooks  on  them,  one  of  which  is  hooked  in  either 
end  of  the  sling.  As  the  load  starts  up  the  two 
ends  of  the  sling  are  brought  together,  making 
the  bulk  compact  enough  to  pass  through  the 
door  in  the  mow  of  the  barn.  When  the  sling 

is  released  the  hay  unfolds  and  is  left  lying  flat  in  the  mow  or  in  the 

stack.     (See  "Slings,"  in  index.) 

Carriers  and  Tracks. 

Special  carriers  are  made  for  forks  or  slings  or  for  both.  The  latter 
kind  is  known  as  a  combined  carrier.  The  size  varies  with  the  service. 
The  light  carriers  are  used  with  forks.  The  heavy  double-track  car- 
riers are  used  with  slings.  Some  may  be  used  in  either  direction,  and 
are  called  two-way  carriers.  If  the  lower  part  can  be  turned  about  with- 
out removal  the  carrier  is  said  to  be  reversible. 

A  large  variety  of  wood  and  steel  tracks  are  to  be  found  upon  the 
market.  The  steel  tracks  are  made  T-shaped,  channel  steel  placed  back 
to  back;  cross  form  of  cross  section,  or  two  T's  placed  top  to  top.  Wood 
tracks  are  usually  made  of  4-  by  4-in.  timber  and  are  often  steel  plated 
on  the  top  edges  where  the  carrier  wheels  run. 

Various  forms  of  switches  are  used  to  convey  the  hay  in  different  di- 
rections from  the  point  of  loading.  When  the  track  turns  a  corner  or  is 
curved  a  system  of  pulleys  must  be  provided  to  keep  the  rope  in  position. 
(See  "Carriers"  and  "Tracks."  in  index.) 


Bro.] 


322 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


323 


324 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  271.     A  cutting  machine  for  chopping  alfalfa  into  short  lengths. 
[Courtesy  Smalley  Manufacturing  Company.] 

HARVESTING   FOR   SEED. 

Alfalfa  that  is  being  cut  for  seed  should  be  handled  as  little  as  possible, 
especially  after  it  has  cured.  In  order  to  do  this  it  is  desirable  to  leave 
the  alfalfa  in  windrows  or  small  bunches.  Tnis  can  be  done  by  cutting 
with  a  mower  and  raking  with  a  side-delivery  rake,  if  raked  before  it 
cures.  Or  it  may  be  placed  in  small  bunches  as  it  is  cut,  by  using  one  of 
the  clover  rakes  (described  before)  with  a  bunching  attachment,  which 
leaves  the  alfalfa  in  small,  loose  bunches. 

One  of  the  writers  once  harvested  a  crop  of  alfalfa  seed  with  a  com- 
mon grain  header,  after  removing  the  elevator,  and  obtained  excellent 
results.  The  header  will  not  work,  however,  if  there  is  much  fine  grass, 
as  the  corrugated  sickle  knives  do  not  cut  it  well. 

Alfalfa  and  Clover  Hullers. 

Special  alfalfa  threshers  are  constructed  somewhat  differently  from 
grain  separators.  Two  cylinders  are  used,  the  first  removing  the  pods 
from  the  straw.  By  the  time  all  of  the  straw  has  passed  the  racks  all  of 
the  pods  are  removed.  The  second  cylinder  removes  the  seed  from  the 
pods.  After  being  cleaned  the  seed  is  bagged,  or  a  recleaner  attached  to 
the  machine  is  sometimes  used  before  bagging.  The  machine  requires 
constant  watching,  as  the  separating  mechanism  has  a  tendency  to  clog  up 
with  the  pods  and  leaves  that  are  threshed  from  the  straw. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  grain-threshing  machines  can  be  converted  into 
clover  and  alfalfa  hullers.  They  will  do  fairly  good  work  if  the  straw  is 
dry  and  in  good  condition  for  threshing. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


325 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


327 


On  one  machine  the  clover-hulling  attachment,  consisting  of  concaves 
with  rasp  teeth,  is  used.  More  often  one  or  more  of  the  regular  three-row 
concaves  is  filled  with  corrugated  teeth.  This  is  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  easier  to  remove  the  alfalfa  from  its  pods  than  the  clover  from 
its  heads.  A  recleaner  can  be  added  which  will  preform  the  function  of 
a  fanning  mill. 

Directions  from  the  company  should  be  on  hand  at  all  times  and  re- 
ferred too  frequently.  This  will  save  many  an  hour  in  the  field  and  man} 
a  bushel  of  seed.  (See  "Threshing,"  in  index.) 

Cleaning  and  Grading  Machines. 

There  are  but  few  cleaning  and  grading  machines  on  the  market  that 
will  clean  and  grade  alfalfa  seed  successfully.  Some  of  the  foul  seed  in 


PIG.  274.   A  fanning  mill  adapted  to  recleaning  alfalfa  seed. 
[Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.] 

alfalfa  is  so  near  the  size  that  the  majority  of  fanning  mills  will  not 
remove  them. 

The  machines  that  seem  to  give  the  best  results  are  those  that  have 
a  vertical  air  blast  and  the  seed  passes  down  through  the  blast. 

With  any  of  the  mills  it  requires  very  careful  operation  and  selecting 
of  screens  to  do  satisfactory  work,  and  a  great  deal  of  dependence  will 
have  to  be  placed  in  the  air  blast  for  removing  shrunken  or  light  seeds. 

A  machine  known  as  the  S.  S.  &  S.,  put  out  by  a  company  at  Denver, 
Colo.,  and  at  Dallas,  Tex.,  can  not  be  recommended  too  highly  for  grading 
seed  of  any  kind.  This  machine  was  brought  out  for  grading  oats  of 
different  specific  gravity,  and  has  just  recently  been  put  on  the  market 
as  a  seed  and  grain  grader.  The  machine  will  grade  grain  into  about 
ten  different  gravities,  varying  only  a  few  ounces  or  more  to  the  bushel, 
and  is  the  only  machine  brought  out  that  will  successfully  separate 
dodder  from  alfalfa  seed.  The  machine  requires  from  three  to  five  horse- 
power to  operate  it  and  costs  about  $300.  It  is  intended  for  use  in  seed 
houses,  but  may  be  handled  by  a  community  very  nicely,  and  ought  to 


328 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


I 


FIG.  275.    A  grain  and  seed  cleaner  and  grader. 
[Courtesy  Sutton,  Steele  &  Steele  Mfg.  M.  and  M.  Co.] 

make  a  valuable  asset  to  the  farmers'  union  elevator,  where  all  of  the 
farmers  in  a  community  could  use  it.  Seed  graded  in  one  of  these  ma- 
chines must  first  be  graded  as  to  size  by  a  good  screen  mill.  (See 
"Cleaning,"  in  index.) 

SELECTION. 

All  of  the  machines  that  have  been  discussed  are  already  found  on  the 
Kansas  farms.  In  the  selection  of  these  and  special  machines  there  are 
several  points  to  bear  in  mind.  A  few  farms  are  overstocked  with  ma- 
chinery, with  the  result  that  depreciation,  interest  on  the  money  invested 
and  repairs  take  too  much  of  the  profits.  Ordinarily  the  opposite  condi- 
tion is  true — not  enough  machinery  is  used. 

Before  deciding  to  buy  a  new  machine,  the  elements  of  cost  with  and 
without  the  new  machine,  and  with  the  old  machine  on  hand,  should  be 
carefully  considered.  Items  of  cost  with  the  machines  are  labor  cost, 
fixed  annual  charges,  and  efficiency.  The  fixed  annual  charges  include 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


329 


interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the  machine,  depreciation,  repairs  and 
storage. 

A  practical  case:  An  alfalfa-  and  grass-seed  drill  is  not  needed  by  a 
farmer  who  will  never  have  more  than  ten  acres  in  alfalfa.  Some  other 
machine  would  be  better. 

Oftentimes  a  machine  can  be  rented  for  less  than  it  would  cost  to 
own  it.  While  this  practice  could  be  followed  more  than  it  is,  it  has 
certain  disadvantages  that  are  readily  apparent;  for  instance,  the  ma- 
chine could  not  be  obtained  just  when  it  was  needed. 

When  deciding  between  two  makes  of  the  same  kind,  compare  sim- 
plicity, durability,  workmanship,  materials  and  construction,  and  oiling 
devices.  The  latter  often  indicate  the  care  with  which  a  machine  is 
built.  Never  look  at  the  price  mark  closely.  A  few  dollars  more  can 
frequently  be  spent  very  advantageously  in  this  way. 

The  best  machines  will  need  repair  occasionally.  It  is  extremely  im- 
portant that  they  can  be  had  quickly  if  necessary.  Many  and  many  a 
good  machine  has  been  discarded  because  a  new  part  costing  a  few  cents 
could  not  be  obtained  at  all,  or  at  least  very  quickly. 


FIG.  276.    Always  keep  tools  sharp  and  in  first-class  repair. 
[Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.] 


CARE   OF    MACHINERY. 

This  article  would  hardly  be  complete  without  a  few  words  in  regard 
to  the  care  of  machinery: 

Exercise  care  when  the  machine  is  in  use. 
Keep  all  instructions. 

Thorough  understanding  of  machine  essential. 
Improper  adjustments  cause  inferior  work  and  increased  draft. 
Dull  implements  do  inferior  work  and  draft  is  increased  un- 
necessarily. 


330  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Oil  is  cheaper  than  repairs. 

Special  oil  and  grease  for  special  conditions. 

Always  use  lubricant  recommended  by  the  manufacturer,  or  a 

better  grade. 

Oil  little  at  a  time  and  frequently. 
When  through  for  season  tag  parts  needing  repair. 
Order  repairs  early. 
Have  machine  ready  for  season's  work  before  the  spring  rush 

is  on. 

Paint  acts  as  a  preservative  to  both  wood  and  steel. 
Rust  is  as  destructive  as  wear. 

Grease  polished  surfaces  when  implement  is  not  in  use. 
Life  of  machine  and  the  quality  of  work  is  lessened  by  lack  of 

care. 

Machine  sheds  are  good  investments.  But  if  a  shed  can  not  be  had, 
it  is  still  possible  to  give  the  machine  good  care  by — 

(1)  Painting. 

(2)  Removing  polished  parts,  such  as  sickles  and  cultivator  shovels, 
and  placing  them  in  a  dry  room  over  winter. 

A  workshop  is  very  important.  Slight  repairs  can  be  made  at  home 
on  rainy  days,  thus  saving  a  trip  to  town.  Buy  a  few  carpenter  and 
blacksmith  tools. 

SUMMARY. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  machines  discussed  are  very  common  and  are 
used  for  other  crops  besides  alfalfa.  A  few  points  should  be  emphasized : 

First.  Utilize  every  machine  on  hand  to  the  fullest  extent  before  buy- 
ing a  new  implement. 

Second.   Consider  well  all  items  of  expense  with  or  without  a  machine. 

Third.    Select  new  machines  carefully. 

Fourth.    Understand  fully  the  methods  of  operation. 

Fifth.  All  machines  deserve  good  care. 


Approximately  one-fifth  of  the  alfalfa  seed  used  in  the  United  States 
is  imported,  and  practically  all  of  this  imported  seed  now  comes  from 
Russian  Turkestan.  Commercial  Turkestan  is  the  cheapest  alfalfa  seed 
in  the  European  market,  and  its  wholesale  price  in  this  country  is  less 
than  that  of  domestic-grown  seed,  while  the  retail  price  of  Turkestan 
alfalfa  seed  in  this  country  is  usually  higher  than  that  of  domestic  seed ; 
consequently  the  seedsman's  profit  on  it  is  greater  than  on  domestic  seed. 
Commercial  Turkestan  alfalfa  is  particularly  unsuited  to  the  humid 
eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  while  it  is  not  as  hardy  as  other 
strains  in  the  North,  and  everywhere  it  recovers  slowly  after  cutting, 
thus  reducing  the  hay  yield.  It  is  relatively  short-lived  and  is  a  poor 
seed  producer.  Russian  knapweed,  a  weed  similar  in  manner  of  growth 
to  quack  grass,  Johnson  grass  and  Canada  thistle,  is  constantly  being 
introduced  in  Turkestan  alfalfa  seed,  and  by  the  presence  of  this  weed 
seed  commercial  Turkestan  seed  may  be  easily  identified. — Department 
Bulletin  No.  1&8,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


331 


A  WAGON  FOR  HAULING  ALFALFA  HAY. 

By  H.  W.  McAFEE,  Farmer,  Topeka,   Shawnee  county. 

I  use  a  specially  constructed  wagon  for  hauling  alfalfa  hay.  This 
wagon  consists,  in  brief,  of  a  9-  by  18-ft.  platform  built  on  two  sets  of 
low  wheels.  There  is  no  coupling  pole,  or  reach,  and  the  bolsters  are  so 
built  up  that  the  floor  clears  the  top  of  the  wheels.  The  wagon  can  turn 
around  in  a  space  of  its  own  length. 


FIG.  277.    One  of  Mr.  McAfee's  strong,  durable  hay  wagons. 

The  sills,  which  rest  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  bolsters,  are  made  of 
3-  by  8-in.  yellow  pine,  twenty  feet  in  length,  and  are  placed  on  edge.  Two 
feet  of  the  sills  project  at  the  rear  of  the  wagon,  and  in  these  projecting 
ends  a  lathed  wooden  roller  turns.  A  one-inch  rope  is  tied  to  each  side  of 
the  front  of  the  rack,  and  when  the  wagon  is  loaded  with  hay  the  ropes  are 
stretched  across  the  top  of  the  load  and  fastened  on  each  end  of  the  roller, 
and  wound  tight.  This  holds  the  load  firmly  in  place. 

Five  3-  by  4-in.  yellow-pine  crosspieces  are  bolted  onto  and  at  right 
angles  with  the  sills,  evenly  spaced.  Braces  are  fastened  underneath 
the  sills  with  the  same  bolts  that  fasten  the  cross  pieces.  These  braces 
project  two  inches  beyond  the  sills  on  either  side.  Resting  on  these  pro- 
jecting ends  are  other  braces  which  reach  out  and  up  to  the  ends  of  and 
support  the  crosspieces  above.  All  braces  are  of  2-  by  4-in.  yellow-pine 
lumber,  and  are  bolted  tight. 

The  floor,  which  is  boarded  solid,  is  made  of  1-  by  12-in.  white  pine, 
18  feet  long,  bolted  to  the  crosspieces.  The  standards,  placed  at  either 
end,  are  made  of  two  2-  by  4-in.  pieces,  4^  feet  long,  to  which  are  nailed 
four  crosspieces.  These  standards  turn  on  bolted  rods  which  go  through 


332  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

both  sills,  and  when  the  wagon  is  not  loaded  with  hay  may  be  laid  down 
in  the  central  depression  of  the  wagon  floor.  If  desired  the  central  de- 
pression may  be  covered  with  loose  boards,  making  the  wagon  floor  level 
all  the  way  across,  although  the  depression  helps  to  hold  a  load  of  hay 
solidly  on  the  wagon. 

Such  a  hay  wagon  is  strong,  durable  and  saves  a  maximum  amount  of 
alfalfa  leaves.  As  much  as  6890  pounds  of  hay  have  been  hauled  upon  it. 
It  is  easy  to  load  and  to  unload,  and  has  the  additional  good  feature  of 
being  usable  for  other  purposes.  The  total  cost  of  material  for  the  rack 
is  approximately  $11,  to  which  must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  running  gear. 


WEEDS  IN  ALFALFA. 

By  ROBERT  SCHMIDT,  Seed  Analyst,  Department  of  Botany,  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College. 

Pernicious  weeds  are  commonly  introduced  on  the  farm  by  the  sow- 
ing of  impure  seeds;*  that  is  to  say,  by  sowing  seed  that  has  mixed  with 
it  the  seeds  of  many  noxious  weeds.  This  is  often  due  to  the  ignorance 
of  the  person  sowing  such  seed,  but  more  often  to  the  unwillingness  of 
farmers  to  pay  the  comparatively  small  difference  in  price  between  good 
and  poor  seed.  Good,  clean  seed  should  always  be  sown;  the  best  ob- 
tainable is  often  none  too  good.  If  there  is  any  question  as  to  its  purity 
the  seed  should  be  tested  to  ascertain  what  weed  seeds  are  present. 

Weeds  are  alfalfa's  worst  enemy,  especially  so  during  the  first  year 
of  the  crop's  growth.  Very  often  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  has  been 
ruined  by  vigorous  weeds  that  have  choked  it  out  before  it  had  become 
well  established.  Weeds  also  constitute  a  rather  serious  menace  to  the 
successful  production  of  alfalfa  seed.  They  not  only  crowd  the  plants 
in  the  field,  but  their  seeds  are  harvested  with  the  alfalfa  seed,  and  are 
thus  often  sold  with  it  and  carried  to  other  sections. 

The  problem  of  weed  destruction  in  stands  of  alfalfa  is  difficult. 
Alfalfa  is  less  aggressive  than  many  weeds.  The  alfalfa  plants  do  not 
spread  by  runners  or  rootstocks  as  do  many  of  the  grasses  and  weeds, 
while  old  alfalfa  stands  do  not  ordinarily  thicken  up  from  self-sown 
seed,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  the  weeds.  The  weeds  in  an  alfalfa 
field  tend  to  increase  more  rapidly  when  the  stand  is  allowed  to  remain 
for  seed  each  year  than  when  the  field  is  mown  regularly  for  hay.  When 
this  weedy  condition  develops  a  year  or  two  of  regular  mowing  for  hay 
will  do  much  toward  reducing  the  number  of  weeds  present  in  the  field. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  species  of  weeds  which  infest  our  alfalfa 
fields.  Their  seeds  are  generally  present  in  clover  and  alfalfa  seed,  and 
the  weeds  themselves  have  been  associated  with  these  forage  plants  so 
long  that  it  is  now  difficult  to  get  seed  in  the  market  that  is  absolutely 
free  from  such  pests.  Descriptions  of  some  of  the  worst  follow. 

Dodder,  foxtail,  Russian  thistle,  pigweed,  crab  grass  and  star  thistle 
are  annual  weeds ;  that  is,  they  live  for  only  one  year,  depending  on  their 
seeds  for  further  propagation.  Curled  dock,  sorrel,  buckthorn,  and  chicory 

*  See   'Weeds"  and  "Seeds,"  in  index. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


333 


are  perennial  weeds,  their  roots  living  over  the  winter  and  sending  up 
stems  each  year  to  produce  seeds.  Sorrel,  or  sour  dock,  propagates  also 
by  means  of  running  underground  rootstocks,  from  which  many  new 
stems  are  sent  up.  The  perennial  weeds  are  the  most  persistent,  because 
they  can  not  be  eradicated  by  merely  preventing  them  from  producing 
seed  for  a  few  seasons.  The  plant  and  root  must  be  entirely  destroyed. 
In  the  case  of  those  weeds  which  possess  running  underground  root- 
stocks,  eradication  is  a  difficult  problem. 

GREEN  FOXTAIL.  (Setaria  viridis  [L.]  Beauv.).  Green  foxtail  is  a 
very  common  annual  plant  closely  resembling  common  millet.  It 
ranges  from  one  to  three  feet  high,  the  spreading  branches  springing  up 
from  the  crown  of  the  plant.  The  flower  head  is  from  one  to  three  inches 

long  and  covered  with  greenish 
bristles.  The  root  is  fibrous.  The 
seeds  ripen  from  July  on.  Yellow 
foxtail  is  very  similar  to  green 
foxtail,  and  is  almost  always 
closely  associated  with  it  as  a 
weed.  These  foxtail  grasses  are 
bad  weeds  only  because  they  are 
so  numerous  that  they  choke  out 
crop  plants.  They  also  produce 
an  enormous  crop  of  seed. 

The  foxtails  are  easily  killed 
by  cultivation.  In  the  case  of 
alfalfa,  cultivation  with  a  spring- 
tooth  harrow  or  spike-tooth  disk 
horrow  will  help  to  keep  them  in 
check. 

CRAB  GRASS  (Digitaria  san- 
guinalis  [L.]  Scop.).  Crab  grasp 
is  an  annual  grass,  much  branched 
and  leafy.  It  grows  from  one  to 
three  feet  high,  the  stems  spread- 
ing along  the  ground  and'  taking 
root  at  the  lower  nodes  or  joints. 

The  flowers  and  seeds  are  produced  on  slender  finger-like  spikes,  from 
which  characteristic  it  is  often  called  finger  grass.  Crab  grass,  as  also 
the  foxtails,  is  primarily  a  weed  of  cultivated  land,  but  seems  to  do  well 
in  alfalfa  fields  and  grass  fields  also,  sometimes  making  such  a  vigorous 
growth  that  it  chokes  the  crop  plants. 

This  grass  is  more  difficult  to  remove  than  foxtail  because  it  roots  so 
readily  at  the  joints.  Cultivation  will  kill  it.  Do  not  let  it  go  to  seed. 
CURLED  DOCK  (Rumex  crispus  L.).  Curled  dock  is  a  perennial  weed 
with  a  large  tap  root,  sometimes  two  feet  long.  The  plant  is  from  two  to 
three  feet  high  and  has  large  leaves  with  a  wavy  margin.  The  name 
"curled  dock"  comes  from  the  wavy  appearance  of  its  leaves.  The  flowers 
and  seeds  are  found  at  the  top  of  the  plant  in  dense  whorls,  extended  into 
racemes  or  heads.  The  mature  seeds  are  shiny  brown,  and  triangular  in 


FiG.  278.    Curled  dock. 


334 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


shape.  The  plant  flowers  in  June  and  ripens  its  seeds  in  July  or  a  little 
later.  It  is  commonly  found  in  waste  places,  clover  and  alfalfa  fields, 
and  meadows. 

Curled  dock  is  readily  eradicated  by  short  rotations  and  cultivated 
crops.  Where  this  is  impracticable,  hand  pulling  when  the  ground  is  soft 
and  wet  is  the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  it.  Avoid  sowing  the  seed  with  crop 
seeds. 

SHEEP  SORREL  or  SOUR  DOCK  (Rumex  acetosella  L.).  Sheep  sorrel 
is  a  perennial  weed  with  shallow-running  rootstocks,  from  which  it  sends 
up  new  plants  in  all  directions.  It  rarely  grows  taller  than  eight  or  ten 

inches,  otherwise  resembling  the 
other  docks  in  general  character- 
istics. It  produces  an  abundance  of 
small  triangular  seeds  during  July, 
August  and  September.  This  is  not 
a  very  common  weed  in  this  section 
as  yet,  but  is  sure  to  become  so,  be- 
cause its  seeds  are  so  abundant  in 
commercial  grass  and  clover  seeds. 
Sheep  sorrel  grows  best  in  thin  or 
worn-out  meadows  and  clover  fields. 
Breaking  the  meadow  and  growing 
some  cultivated  crop  will  usually 
subdue  the  weed.  The  soil  should 
also  be  limed. 

RUSSIAN  THISTLE  (Salsola  kali 
tenuifolia,  G.  F.  W.  Mey). — This  is 
an  annual  weed  which  is  supposed 
to  have  come  from  Russia  in  some 
imported  flaxseed.  The  plant  is  from 
one  to  three  feet  high  and  sometimes 
has  a  diameter  of  six  feet.  It 
branches  very  profusely,  giving  it  a 
bushy  appearance,  sometimes  almost 
spherical.  The  plant  is  light  green 
in  color,  has  a  small  white  taproot, 
and  small  leaves  tapering  down  to 

sharp  spines.  Because  of  these  spines  it  is  called  a  "thistle,"  although  it 
does  not  belong  to  the  true  thistle  family.  The  plant  matures  its  seeds  in 
August.  The  seeds  are  spiral  shaped,  covered  with  a  thin  gray  hull.  It 
is  estimated  that  a  large  plant  will  produce  from  100,000  to  200,000 
seeds.  The  seed  is  found  in  commercial  flax  and  clover  seeds,  but  more 
especially  in  western-grown  alfalfa  seed.  Its  rapid  spread  is  due  partly 
to  this  fact  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  plant  is  a  so-called  tumbleweed. 
In  autumn  the  weed  breaks  away  from  its  stem  and  is  carried  for  long 
distances  by  the  wind,  scattering  seeds  as  it  goes. 

Prevent  Russian  thistles  from  maturing  by  cultivation  or  harrowing. 
The  plants  are  easily  destroyed  while  small.  If  allowed  to  mature  they 


Fm.  279.   Rough  pigweed. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


335 


should  be  gathered  up  and  burned  before  they  break  loose  and  scatter 
their  seeds  far  and  wide.  The  removal  of  the  weeds  along  the  roadsides 
is  important,  because  they  are  a  large  factor  in  the  spread  of  this  pest. 
Careful  seeding  so  as  to  occupy  the  land  fully  with  the  crop  will  check  this 
weed  to  a  large  extent. 

PIGWEED  OR  RED  ROOT.  (Amaranthus  retroftexus  L.).  Pigweed  is  an 
annual  weed  growing  from  a  fairly  deep-rooted  tap  root.  The  root  is 
generally  red  in  color,  whence  the  plant  is  sometimes  called  "red  root." 
Pigweed  grows  from  one  to  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  is  somewhat 
branched.  The  stems  and  leaves  are  very  rough  to  the  touch.  The  flowers 
are  inconspicuous.  The  small,  oval,  shiny,  black  seeds  mature  in  July  and 
August.  The  seeds  occur  in  those  of  almost  all  other  crops,  particularly 
those  of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  some  of  the  grasses,  but  are  not  difficult  to 
remove  by  means  of  the  proper  cleaning  machinery.  The  weed  is  common 
in  all  parts  of  the  country. 


Fia.  280.    Dodder  on  alfalfa. 


336  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Prevent  pigweeds  from  going  to  seed,  and  avoid  sowing  the  seed  in 
grain,  grass  and  clover  seeds.  Frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the 
seed  bed  before  sowing  the  crop  will  destroy  a  large  part  of  the  seeds 
of  this  weed  which  are  in  the  surface  soil. 

DODDER  (Ciiscuta,  species).  Dodder  is  a  parasite  deriving  its  food,  not 
from  the  soil,  but  directly  from  the  crop  plants  which  it  infests.  In  this 
respect  it  is  not  like  the  ordinary  weeds  of  the  farm.  It  starts  from  a 
seed,  at  first  deriving  its  nourishment  from  the  food  supply  stored  in  the 
seed.  It  develops  a  slender,  threadlike  and  leafless  stem,  which  twines 
around  the  clover  alfalfa  or  other  suitable  host  plant  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact.  Suckers  are  sent  out  which  penetrate  the  tissues  of  the 
host  plant.  From  this  time  on  the  dodder  is  dependent  on  its  host  for  its 
food  supply,  and  by  means  of  the  suckers  penetrating  the  sap-conveying 
tissues,  begins  to  drain  the  host  plant  of  the  food  prepared  by  the  latter 
for  its  own  use.  After  becoming  established  on  the  host  plant  the  part 
of  the  dodder  below  the  point  of  attachment  dies.  Above  this  point  the 
plant  makes  rapid  growth,  branching  out  until  under  favorable  conditions 
it  forms  a  tangled  mass  of  threadlike  filaments.  Since  dodder  does  not 
manufacture  its  own  food,  but  uses  that  prepared  by  the  host  plant,  it  is 
devoid  of  leaves  and  root. 

Dodder  plants  are  to  be  distinguished  by  their  slender,  threadlike 
stems,  which  are  lemon  yellow,  orange  or  pink  in  color.  They  may  ap- 
pear to  confine  their  attack  to  a  single  plant  in  a  place,  or  may  spread 
uniformly  from  plant  to  plant,  either  near  the  ground  or  from  the  tops 
of  the  plants.  Small  white  flowers,  mostly  in  clusters,  are  produced  by 
midsummer.  Seeds  ripen  throughout  the  central  United  States  from 
the  middle  of  July  into  September.  As  a  rule  the  dodders  are  profuse 
seed  producers,  but  seed  production  is  strongly  influenced  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  host,  its  treatment  as  a  crop,  and  by  climatic  conditions. 

Dodder  is  commonly  thought  to  be  just  one  species  or  kind  of  plant, 
but  there  are  several  different  kinds  of  dodder  that  are  very  common 
and  others  that  are  not  so  common.  Alfalfa  and  clovers  alone  are  in- 
fested by  four  common  species,  viz.,  field  dodder,  clover  dodder,  small- 
seeded  alfalfa  dodder,  and  large-seeded  alfalfa  dodder.  Dodder  is  pe- 
culiar in  that  the  different  species  show  a  marked  preference  for  cer- 
tain kinds  of  host  plants. 

The  seed  of  dodder  becomes  an  important  impurity  of  commercial 
seeds,  both  on  account  of  the  injurious  nature  of  the  plants  and  the 
fact  that  they  occur  in  nearly  all  the  regions  in  which  clover  and  alfalfa 
seeds  are  produced.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  dodder  seeds  and  the 
period  of  their  maturity  agree  so  closely  with  those  of  red  clover  and 
alfalfa  seeds  that  their  presence  in  the  seed  crop  is  practically  sure  to 
follow  the  occurrence  of  maturing  dodder  plants  in  fields  devoted  to 
these  crops. 

Success  in  the  eradication  of  this  pest  depends  very  largely  on  the 
early  discovery  of  the  plants,  followed  by  immediate  work  in  subduing 
them.  It  is  important  to  gain  control  before  the  plants  have  spread  far 
from  the  point  of  attack,  and  to  destroy  them  before  they  produce  seed. 
Cutting  the  infested  area  close  to  the  ground,  and  burning  the  plants  on 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


337 


the  spot,  is  the  safest  method.  This  may  or  may  not  destroy  the  roots 
of  the  crop  plants,  but  if  it  does  the  area  may  be  reseeded.  In  removing 
the  dodder  plants  to  be  burned  elsewhere,  there  is  always  danger  of 
dropping  some  of  the  stems  in  other  parts  of  the  field  and  starting  new 
infested  areas.  In  clearing  infested  areas  care  must  be  taken  to  carry 
the  work  far  enough  around  the  borders  to  include  all  of  the  dodder, 
otherwise  the  work  will  be  of  little  value. 

The  above  method  is  very  effective  for  small  patches  of  dodder.     On 
the  other  hand,  if  a  whole  field  is  badly  infested,  plowing  under  the 


Fia.  281.    Buckhorn. 


—12 


338  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

stand  will  be  found  necessary.  This  must  be  done  before  the  dodder  has 
produced  seed. 

BUCKHORN  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.).  Buckhorn  is  without  question 
one  of  the  most  common  and  worst  weeds  of  the  alfalfa  and  clover  fields. 
Its  seeds  are  commonly  found  in  commercial  alfalfa  and  clover  seed, 
which  accounts  for  the  wide  dissemination  of  this  weed.  Buckhorn  is  a 
perennial  plant,  introduced  into  this  country  from  Europe.  It  produces 
a  large  rosette  of  ribbed,  lanceolate  leaves,  sometimes  erect  and  some- 
times lying  close  to  the  ground.  In  place  of  a  stem  it  sends  out  long 
slender  stalks,  at  the  top  of  which  are  borne  the  dense  spikes  of  flowers, 
and  later  the  seeds.  The  root  system  of  this  weed  is  composed  of  a 
short  perennial  rootstock  with  many  fibrous  roots.  It  propagates  by 
means  of  seed  and  also  by  the  rootstock  of  the  previous  year.  Buckhorn 
flowers  throughout  the  summer,  and  mature  seed  may  be  found  by  the 
first  part  of  July. 

Buckhorn  is  a  persistent  weed  in  clover  meadows  and  alfalfa  fields. 
However,  it  is  easily  suppressed  by  the  use  of  hoed  crops  and  short  ro- 
tations. Since  this  pest  is  found  commonly  in  commercial  alfalfa  and 
clover  seed,  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  only  first-quality  seed 
should  be  sown.  If  any  buckhorn  happens  to  come  up  with  the  young 
crop  it  should  be  hand-pulled  whenever  practicable. 

CHICORY  (Cichorium  intybus  L.)  Chicory  is  a  perennial  plant  closely 
allied  to  endive,  which  is  cultivated  as  a  salad  plant.  The  plant  is  usually 
much  branched,  with  deep  roots,  blue  flowers,  and  a  rosette  of  basal 
leaves  spreading  on  the  ground.  It  is  common  along  roadsides  and  in 
waste  places,  and  is  becoming  a  common  weed  in  alfalfa  fields,  where  it 
has  been  introduced  by  the  agency  of  impure  seed. 

Though  a  perennial,  chicory  is  not  difficult  to  destroy  where  rotation 
of  crops  is  practiced.  The  roots  can  be  killed  by  repeated  cultivation. 
Merely  cutting  the  plant  off,  however,  does  not  destroy  it. 

STAR  THISTLE  (Centaur ea  solstitialis  L.)  This  is  an  erect,  branched 
annual  with  yellow*  flowers  and  cottony  stem.  It  has  been  introduced 
here  with  alfalfa  seed,  and  threatens  to  become  a  bad  weed  in  the  seed- 
producing  districts.  It  is  extremely  objectionable  on  account  of  its  spiny 
heads. 

Star  thistle  is  easily  killed  by  cultivation,  as  it  is  only  an  annual  weed. 
Nevertheless,  the  labor  of  eradicating  it  can  be  forestalled  by  sowing 
clean  seed. 

The  above  weeds  are  the  ones  the  seeds  of  which  are  most  commonly 
found  in  commercial  alfalfa  seed.  There  are  few  weeds  that  are  very 
noxious,  but  which  are  not  of  common  occurrence  in  alfalfa  in  this  part 
of  the  country.  These  are  Canada  thistle,  horse  nettle,  bindweed,  quack 
grass,  Johnson  grass,  and  dandelion.  The  fact  that  the  seeds  of  these 
weeds  are  easily  separated  from  alfalfa  seed  explains  why  they  are  not 
more  common.  (See  "Weeds"  and  "Seeds,"  in  index.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  339 


PLANT  DISEASES  AFFECTING  ALFALFA. 

By  L.  E.  MELCHERS,  Department  of  Botany,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

•  The  extent  of  damage  caused  by  various  plant  diseases  attacking  al- 
falfa in  Kansas  is  generally  not  realized.  At  present  no  specific  data 
are  at  hand  by  which  the  writer  can  cite  figures  for  the  extent  of  injury 
brought  about  by  each  different  alfalfa  disease,  but  from  the  plant- 
disease  survey  records  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  various  diseases 
listed  below  are  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  the  alfalfa  regions 
of  this  state.  Even  basing  the  extent  of  damage  at  1  per  cent,  which 
would  be  very  conservative,  the  combined  loss  from  the  nine  diseases  al- 
ready known  to  occur  in  this  state  would  amount  to  over  $140,000  for 
1914. 

Unfortunately  the  alfalfa  crop  is  one  in  which  its  diseases  can  only  be 
partially  combated — that  is,  in  preventing  losses,  from  disease — and  this 
only  lies  within  the  scope  of  the  cultural  methods  of  this  crop.  In  other 
words,  spraying  with  fungicides  would  be  impracticable;  therefore,  it 
behooves  the  farmer  at  times  to  practice  rotation,  or  cutting  the  hay 
sometimes  a  little  earlier  than  is  ordinarily  advisable,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  foliage. 

Generally  speaking,  alfalfa  diseases  may  be  grouped  into  two  classes: 
(1)  those  caused  by  parasitic  organisms  (fungi  or  bacteria,  and  higher 
types  of  plants  like  dodder),  and  (2)  those  which  are  nonparasitic  (not 
due  to  any  known  organism). 

Under  the  first  group  we  have  occurring  in  Kansas  the  alfalfa  dodder, 
leaf  rust,  three  different  leaf-spot  diseases,  the  bacterial  stem  blight,  the 
red  or  violet  root  rot,  the  downy  mildew,  and  a  Phomopsis  stem  disease. 
Other  diseases  attacking  alfalfa  which  have  not  been  reported  in  this 
state  thus  far  are  the  brown  root  rot,  the  crown  wart  and  the  root  knot. 

Under  the  second  group  we  have  the  stem-cracking  disease  and  the 
yellow-top  disease  of  alfalfa.  These  are  different  maladies  from  those 
before  mentioned,  in  that  they  are  nonparasitic — that  is,  no  organism  or 
germ  is  responsible  for  them.  It  will  be  seen  that  most  of  the  alfalfa 
diseases  are  caused  by  fungi,  one  by  bacteria,  and  one  by  a  higher  type 
of  parasitic  plant,  namely,  dodder.  The  fungi  and  bacteria  which  cause 
the  alfalfa  diseases  are  very  minute  parasitic  plants  of  a  much  lower 
order  than  the  dodder.  In  both  cases,  however,  these  parasitic  plants  live 
upon  or  inside  the  tissues  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  robbing  it  of  its  nourish- 
ment, and  thereby  reducing  its  vitality. 

ALFALFA  DODDER.  A  discussion  of  alfalfa  dodder  will  be  found  under 
the  topic  on  weeds,  for  in  fact  it  is  a  weed,  producing  a  diseased  condition 
in  the  alfalfa  plant.  (See  "Dodder,"  in  index.) 

ALFALFA  RUST  (Uromyces  striatus  Schrcet).  Although  generally  not 
considered  a  serious  disease  of  alfalfa,  it  did  cause  a  slight  amount  of 
damage  in  1914,  on  the  last  crop  in  some  localities.  The  extent  of  injury 
varied  from  approximately  one  to  three  per  cent,  i.  e.,  this  percentage  of 
affected  foliage  dropped  on  account  of  the  rust  infection. 


340 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


The  rust  of  alfalfa  attacks  the  leaves,  occurring  on  the  under  side.  It 
is  different  in  appearance  from  the  ordinary  leaf  spots,  in  that  the  epi- 
dermis (outer  layer)  of  the  leaflets  is  ruptured,  exposing  a  mass  of 
reddish-brown  spores  or  reproductive  bodies  of  the  fungus.  (See  Fig. 
282.)  This  spore  mass  when  viewed  under  the  magnifying  lens  appears 
to  rest  in  a  rupture  in  the  leaf  blade.  (See  Fig.  283.)  These  ruptures 
or  pustules  are  only  about  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
they  may  occur  numerously  or  sparingly  on  the  leaves.  (See  Fig.  282.) 


FIG.  282.    Alfalfa  leaf   (under  side),  showing  rust  postules   (enlarged). 


283.    A  rust  postule  on  an  alfalfa  leaf,  greatly  enlarged. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


341 


ALFALFA  LEAF-SPOT  DISEASES. 

These  are  caused  by  specific  fungi  which  penetrate  the  tissues  of  the 
leaves  and  kill  definite  areas.  On  account  of  their  invasion  the  vital 
functions  of  the  leaves  are  interfered  with,  and  as  a  result  they  die; 
this,  in  turn,  reduces  the  vigor  of  the  entire  alfalfa  plant.  Not  only  do 
the  leaves  die,  but  they  dry  up  and  drop  off  from  the  stems  more  readily 
than  under  normal  conditions.  In  fact,  a  great  share  of  the  hay  crop  is 
oftentimes  sacrificed  on  account  of  this  loss  of  foliage. 


Fia.  284.  Alfalfa  leaf  spot  (Psetido- 
peziza  medicaginis  Lib.  Sacc.),  show- 
ing characteristic  spotted  condition  of 
the  foliage.  The  leaves  have  dropped 
from  the  alfalfa  stem  as  a  result  of 
this  disease. 


FIG.  285.  Alfalfa  leaf  spot  (Pseudo- 
peziza  medicaginis  Lib.  Sacc.).  The 
spots  are  circular  in  outline  and  only 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter. 


ALFALFA  LEAF  SPOT  (Pseudopeziza  medicaginis  [Lib.]  Sacc.).  This 
disease  is  recognized  by  its  small,  sooty-brown  or  blackish  spots,  which 
are  most  characteristic  on  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves.  (See  Fig. 
284.)  The  spots  are  circular  in  outline  and  only  about  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  (See  Fig.  285.)  They  occur  so  abundantly,  how- 
ever, that  they  injure  the  foliage  sufficiently  to  cause  it  to  drop.  It  is 
very  frequently  called  a  "rust"  or  "blight."  It  may  attack  plants  which 
are  growing  even  under  the  best  of  soil  conditions,  and  is  very  often 
more  severe  during  a  dry  season  than  during  a  wet  one.  It  may  prac- 
tically ruin  or  destroy  a  young  field,  and  older  fields  are  likewise  very 


342 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


susceptible  to  severe  infestations.  In  this  state  it  attacks  most  generally 
the  second,  third  and  fourth  crops.  The  bottom  leaves  are  the  first  to 
become  infected,  and  gradually  the  characteristic  spots  appear  upon  the 
uppermost  leaves.  The  leaves  turn  more  or  less  yellowish  and  the  dark 
spots  become  pronounced.  Later  such  diseased  foliage  drops,  and  before 
the  cutting  stage  has  arrived  the  loss  of  foliage  has  become  very  notice- 
able. (See  Fig.  284.) 


FIG.  287.  The  fungus  (alfalfa  leaf 
spot,  Phyllostieta  sp.)  may  attack  the 
stem,  causing  blackened  spots. 

Fia.  286.  Alfalfa  leaf  spot  (Phyllo- 
stieta sp.),  showing  the  characteristic 
symptoms  of  this  disease.  Note  the 
pin-point-like  dots,  the  bodies  contain- 
ing the  spores  of  the  fungus. 

This  fungous  disease  is  widespread,  and  generally  prevalent  where- 
ever  alfalfa  is  grown.  The  only  practical  measure  to  be  employed  is  to 
mow  the  crop  as  soon  as  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  checked  by  this  leaf 
spot  and  before  the  foliage  has  begun  to  drop.  Should  the  disease  es- 
tablish itself  on  young  plants  it  is  advisable  merely  to  clip  the  tops  of 
the  plants,  allowing  three  or  four  inches  of  the  stems  to  remain. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


343 


ALFALFA  LEAF  SPOT  (Phyllosticta,  sp.).  Another  leaf  spot  which  was 
very  prevalent  in  the  first  and  second  crops  throughout  the  state  the 
past  season  is  one  which  is  caused  by  an  entirely  different  fungus  from 
the  aforementioned.  It  is  quite  different  in  appearance,  and  proved  to  be 
even  more  destructive.  (See  Fig.  286.)  This  leaf  spot  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  which  so  infects  the  alfalfa  foliage  that  it  soon  turns  yellow, 

drops,  and  falls  from  the  stem.  In 
many  cases  over  40  per  cent  of  the 
foliage  was  lost  on  the  first  and  sec- 
ond crops.  It  was  also  present,  to  a 
lesser  extent,  however,  on  the  third 
and  fourth  crops. 

This  particular  leaf  spot  is  most 
easily  recognized  by  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  produce  definite  spots  on 
the  leaves,  but  scattered  over  their 
entire  upper  surface  are  very  minute, 
pin-point-like  dots.  (See  Fig.  286.) 
These  little  fungus  bodies  contain 
the  spores  of  the  fungus.  Generally 
the  diseased  leaves  turn  a  sulphur- 
yellow  color,  and  curl  more  or  less  at 
the  margins  during  the  later  stages 
of  the  disease.  This  same  fungus 
may  attack  the  stems,  where  it 
causes  blackened  spots,  but  generally 
it  does  not  kill  them.  (See  Fig.  287.) 
Although  this  disease  may  have 
been  present  in  the  state  before,  it 
has  never  been  reported  prior  to  this 
season.  Nothing  can  be  done  to  pre- 
vent this  disease  from  attacking  the 
alfalfa  crop.  It  is  advisable  to  mow 
the  crop  as  soon  as  one  discovers  it 
causing  the  foliage  to  drop. 

ALFALFA  LEAF  SPOT  (Pleosphss- 
rulina  briosiana  Pollacci).  This  is  a 
new  alfalfa  leaf  spot  in  America,  and 
was  discovered  in  this  state  by  the 
writer  last  year.  It  is  different 
in  appearance  from  the  other  two 
already  described  in  that  it  forms 
definite  grayish  spots  with  a  dark- 
brown  margin.  (See  Figs.  288  and 

289.)  The  spots  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  leaves,  but  most  frequently 
they  appear  along  the  margins  of  the  leaflets.  It  is  similar  to  the  other 
leaf  spots  mentioned  in  that  it  causes  the  foliage  to  drop  previous  to  their 
maturity.  This  disease  does  not  attack  the  alfalfa  stems. 


Fia.     288.      Alfalfa    leaf    spot     (Pleo- 
sphcerulina   briosiana   Pollacci). 


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Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  289.    Alfalfa  leaf  spot   (Pleosphcerulina  briosiana  Pollacci),  magnified. 

The  same  treatment  recommended  for  the  other  alfalfa  leaf  spots  ap- 
plies here. 

DOWNY  MILDEW  OF  ALFALFA  (Pernospora  trifoliorum  De.  By.).  This 
disease  was  present  in  1914  and  again  in  increased  quantities  in  the  first 
crop  of  1915.  It  is  especially  noticeable  on  the  young  alfalfa  plants,  but 
it  does  not  confine  its  attack  to  one-year-old  plants.  The  first  crop  ap- 
pears to  be  the  only  one  atacked  in  Kansas,  and  up  to  the  present  no 
particular  damage  has  resulted  except  in  a  slight  loss  in  yield  in  the  first 
crop.  Warm,  damp  weather  in  May  is  especially  favorable  for  its  de- 
velopment and  spread. 

The  uppermost  leaves  seem  to  show  the  disease  first;  they  turn  a  pale 
green  or  slightly  yellowish  color.  If  such  leaves  are  examined  on  the 
under  side  they  will  show  a  very  fine  mold-like  growth,  slightly  grayish 
in  color.  (See  Figs.  290  and  291.)  This  is  the  fungus  causing  the  dis- 
ease. It  sometimes  happens  that  the  entire  tips  of  the  shoots  become 
affected  with  this  fungus.  (See  Fig.  292.)  In  such  case  the  plant  is 
stunted,  and  the  affected  shoots  will  cease  further  growth. 

Generally  speaking,  this  disease  is  not  serious  enough  to  warrant 
early  cutting  to  prevent  loss. 

RED  OR  VIOLET  ROOT  ROT  OF  ALFALFA  (Rhizoctonia  violacese  Tul.). 
The  records  on  hand  seem  to  indicate  that  this  disease  is  increasing  in 
this  state.  It  was  first  reported  in  Kansas  seventeen  years  ago.  The 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


345 


acreage  of  alfalfa  has  increased  materially  since  that  time,  and  the 
disease  has  consequently  spread.  It  has  been  known  in  Europe  for  many 
years,  and  not  infrequently  has  caused  the  death  of  half  the  crop.  It  is 
certain  to  become  more  serious  in  this  state  every  year,  and  since  the 
entire  plant  is  at  the  mercy  of  this  fungus  its  damage  is  lasting. 

The  first  external  symptom  which  attracts  one's  attention  is  the  yellow- 
ing of  the  entire  plant,  which  soon  begins  to  wither,  and  eventually  dies. 
If  the  roots  of  such  a  plant  are  carefully  examined  one  will  notice  a  mat 
of  brownish-red  or  violet  fungus  threads  covering  them.  (See  Fig.  293.) 


FIG.  290.    Downy  mildew  of  alfalfa,  showing  the  mold-like  growth,  on  the  under  side 

of  the  leaf. 


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Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  291.    Downy  mildew  of  alfalfa.     Same  as  Fig.  290,  but  greatly  enlarged, 
showing  the  tufts  of  the  fungus. 

These  threads  penetrate  the  vital  layers  of  the  roots.  Later  the  roots 
begin  to  rot  and  the  outer  layers  slough  off.  (See  Fig.  294.)  About  this 
time  little  roughened  knots  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head  begin  to  form  in 
the  violet  mass  of  fungus  threads.  (See  Fig.  295.)  These  are  part  of  the 
fungus,  and  tide  the  disease  over  from  year  to  year,  and  are  said  to  have 
the  power  of  remaining  alive  in  the  soil  for  two  and  three  seasons. 

The  disease  starts  from  a  center  of  infection.  From  this  center  the 
fungus  grows  in  all  directions  through  the  soil,  killing  the  plants  as  it 
progresses.  Each  year  finds  the  circle  growing  larger,  until  after  a  few 
years  large  areas  have  been  killed  out  in  the  alfalfa  fields.  (See  Figs. 
296  and  297.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


347 


This  disease  is  often  most  prevalent  in  fields  where  inadequate  drain- 
age exists.  Unfavorable  soil  conditions  for  alfalfa  make  conditions 
favorable  for  the  development  of  the  fungus. 

Since  this  disease  may  live  over  in  the  soil  for  a  number  of  years,  it 
will  not  do  to  replant  these  vacant  spots  until  the  disease  has  been 
killed  out.  Generally  this  disease  is  worse  in  fields  which  are  eight  years 
old  or  older.  If  a  field  contains  a  number  of  patches  in  which  the  plants 
have  been  killed,  the  entire  field  should  be  plowed  up  and  not  replanted 


FIG.  292.  Downy  mildew  of  alfalfa. 
Note  the  mold-like  growth  at  the  tip  of 
the  plant. 


FIG.  293.  Red  or  violet  root  rot. 
Note  the  fungus  threads  creeping  over 
the  surface  of  the  root. 


to  alfalfa  or  clover  for  at  least  three  years.  As  soon  as  the  disease  is 
observed,  and  before  it  has  advanced  very  far,  it  may  be  checked  by 
digging  up  all  the  diseased  plants  and  burning  them.  A  trench  should 
be  dug  around  the  entire  patch,  beginning  at  least  five  feet  beyond  the 
outer  limits  of  the  area  where  the  plants  show  wilting  or  yellowing.  All 
plants  and  soil  should  be  thrown  toward  the  center  of  the  patch,  other- 
wise the  disease  will  be  disseminated.  Later  the  diseased  plants  should 


348 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


be  burned.  By  such  means  the  ravages  from  this  disease  may  be 
checked.  The  patches  should  lie  bare  for  at  least  three  years,  for  the 
fungus  must  be  starved  out  of  the  soil. 

BACTERIAL  STEM  BLIGHT  (Pseudomonas  medicaginis) .  Although  this 
disease  was  reported  in  Kansas  some  years  ago,  it  has  not  been  seen 
lately,  nor  has  it  been  brought  to  the  writer's  attention.  The  disease  was 
first  reported  in  Colorado,  where,  according  to  the  plant  pathologist's  re- 
ports, it  has  caused  considerable  damage.  Farmers  should  be  on  the 
lookout  for  this  disease  as  well  as  all  other  alfalfa  diseases.* 


FIG.  294. 


Red  or  violet  root  rot  of  alfalfa  during  various  stages, 
off  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  roots. 


Note  the  sloughing 


This  blight  may  be  recognized  by  the  fact  that  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance on  the  first  crop.  The  stems  appear  watery  and  semitransparent 
during  the  early  stages.  Soon  the  affected  stems  assume  a  yellowish, 
olive-green  color,  which  transforms  to  amber  color,  due  to  the  drying  of 
a  thick,  sticky  liquid,  which  gives  the  stems  a  shiny  or  varnished 
appearance.  Later  such  stems  blacken  and  become  brittle,  which  fact 

*  The  department  of  botany  desires  to  cooperate  with  all  parties  interested  in  plant 
diseases.  Specimens  may  be  sent  to  the  college  free  of  postage  if  parties  will  write  for 
franked  tags. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


349 


causes  considerable  shattering.  The  disease  is  said  to  run  its  course  in 
the  first  crop  and  is  not  noticed  'again  until  the  following  year. 

No  variety  of  alfalfa  is  resistant  to  it.  The  bacteria  causing  this 
disease  live  over  in  the  soil  and  gain  entrance  into  those  stems  which 
are  cracked  or  split  by  late  freezing. 

YELLOW  TOP  OF  ALFALFA.  Occasionally  this  trouble  is  found  in  fields 
where  unfavorable  soil  conditions  exist.  The  disease  is  recognized,  as 

the  name  indicates,  by  a  yellowing  of 
the  leaves.  Generally  this  is  most 
noticeable  at  the  tips.  As  far  as 
known,  no  parasitic  organism  is  as- 
sociated with  its  occurrence.  The 
disease  is  merely  indicative  of  an  un- 
thrifty growth,  brought  about  by  un- 
favorable growing  conditions. 

STEM  CRACKING  OF  ALFALFA.  A 
peculiar  cracking  or  splitting  of  al- 
falfa stems  has  been  observed  very 
frequently  in  the  first  crop.  These 
splits  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the 
stem,  and  not  infrequently  two  and 
three  cracks  are  found  on  a  single 
stem.  (See  Fig.  298.)  They  vary  in 
length  from  half  an  inch  to  two 
inches  and  extend  to  the  center  of 
the  stem.  As  high  as  15  per  cent  of 
the  stems  in  some  fields  have  shown 
this  affliction.  In  itself  this  splitting 
would  not  be  serious,  since  the  stems 
do  not  wilt  as  a  result,  but  the  tissues 
generally  callous  over  sufficiently  to 
prevent  this.  These  openings  do  form 
a  means  of  entrance  for  diseases, 
however,  and  one  species  of  fungus 
in  particular  (Phomopsis,  sp.)  figures 
materially  in  causing  trouble  when- 
ever there  is  an  injury.  This  fungus 
develops  rapidly  after  it  has  once 

gained  entrance  into  the  stem.  It  produces  a  blackened  condition,  caus- 
ing the  tissues  to  dry  out.  (See  Fig.  287.)  The  weakened  stems  become 
brittle  and  frequently  lop  over  and  wilt.  The  exact  cause  of  the  cracking 
is  unknown,  but  it  appears  to  be  related  to  extremely  rapid  growth 
brought  about  by  excessive  moisture. 

Losses  from  these  troubles  can  be  prevented  by  mowing  the  crop  as 
soon  as  possible,  and  since  it  occurs  mainly  on  the  first  crop,  a  little 
earlier  mowing  may  be  advised. 


FIG.  295.  Red  or  violet  root  rot  in 
later  stage,  showing  the  little  projecting 
knots  of  fungus,  which  are  violet  in 
color. 


350 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


SOME   ALFALFA   DISEASES    UNREPORTED   IN    KANSAS. 

The  farmers  of  this  state  are  urgently  requested  to  be  on  the  lookout 
for  the  occurrence  of  the  following  diseases : 

CROWN  WART  OF  ALFALFA  (Urophlyctis  alfalfas).  The  chief  character- 
istic of  this  disease  is  the  presence  of  a  gall  or  wart  at  the  base  of  the 
stem.  (See  Fig.  299.)  This  gall  is  produced  by  a  fungus  parasite  which 
gains  entrance  into  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and,  stimulating  the  tissues, 
it  produces  a  malformation.  Occasionally  the  warts  may  occur  on  the 
stems  several  inches  from  the  ground.  They  vary  in  size  from  that  of 


FIG.  296.     A  dead  patch  in  an  alfalfa  field  caused  by  red  or  violet  root  rot. 
second  season's  attack. 


Fia.  297.     Bed  or  violet  root  rot  attack;  dead  area  100  by  150  feet  in  an  old  field. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


351 


a  pea  to  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  being  irregular  in  contour.  The  surface 
of  these  galls  is  irregular,  coral-like,  due  to  the  undulations.  Very  many 
fine,  thread-like  root  hairs  are  seen  growing  from  these  galls.  If  such  a 
gall  is  cut  in  two,  many  cavities  filled  with  a  dusty  mass  of  brown  spores 
will  be  observed. 


FIG.  299.  Crown  wart  of  alfalfa. 
The  wart  is  seen  at  the  crown  of  the 
plant,  [After  E.  C.  Fields,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.] 


FIG.   298.     Stem   cracking   disease  of   al- 
falfa.      Notice    the    depth    to     which    these  » 
cracks  extend. 

The  disease  is  serious  in  Europe,  and  recently  it  has  beer  found  in 
the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  Although  it  is  said  to  be  re- 
stricted in  Europe  to  fields  which  are  wet,  seldom  appearing  in  drier 
land,  such  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case  in  this  country,  for  it  has  been 
reported  on  both  well-drained  and  poorly  drained  land,  and  on  "sticky" 
soils.  How  and  whence  the  disease  was  introduced  into  the  Salt  Lake 
valley,  Utah,  is  not  known.  In  all  probability  the  spores  or  germs  of 


352 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


the  fungus  were  brought  in  with  seed  coming  from  infected  areas  in 
South  America  or  Europe. 

So  far  as  is  known  alfalfa  and  clover  are  the  only  crops  affected, 
and  it  is  not  yet  certainly  known  whether  the  alfalfa  crown  wart  will 
affect  clover.  Crop  rotation  is  the  only  known  remedy. 

BROWN  ROOT  ROT  OF  ALFALFA  (Ozonium  omnivorum  Shear).  This 
disease  is  given  the  common  name  of  brown  root  rot  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  violet  root  rot  already  described.  It  occurs  in  Texas 
and  neighboring  states,  where  it  has  caused  considerable  damage  to  the 

cotton  and  alfalfa  crops.  The  dying 
of  the  plants  and  the  spreading  of 
the  disease  from  centers  of  infection 
is  very  similar  to  the  symptoms  of 
violet  root  rot.  There  is  generally 
little  evidence  of  its  presence  until 
the  plant  begins  to  wilt  and  dry  up. 
Cotton  and  alfalfa  are  not  the  only 
hosts  attacked,  but  the  fungus  lives 
on  a  number  of  weeds.  Sources  of 
infection  are  therefore  very  easily 
carried  over  from  one  season  to  the 
next.  When  diseased  plants  are  ex- 
amined carefully  one  will  find  that 
all  the  smaller  roots  have  disap- 
peared, for  they  break  off  readily 
when  the  plants  are  pulled. 

The  fungus  penetrates  the  root 
tissues  much  as  in  the  case  of  the 
violet  root  rot,  but  it  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  in  that  the 
color  of  the  fungus  threads  is  brown 
or  brownish-yellow  rather  than  violet. 
Application  of  chemicals  to  the  soil 
does  not  seem  to  be  effective  in  con- 
trolling the  disease  in  the  regions 
where  it  occurs.  It  is  claimed,  how- 
ever, that  a  lack  of  proper  soil  aera- 
tion is  a  prominent  factor  in  the  de- 
i  velopment  of  this  disease.  It  is 

advisable  to  fall  plow  whenever  possible  without  injury  to  the  land,  to 
be  followed  by  thorough  disking  in  the  spring.  A  two-  or  three-year 
rotation  is  deemed  necessary  to  insure  against  the  source  of  the  infection 
being  carried  over. 

EEL  WORM  OR  ROOT  KNOT  (Heterodera  radicicola) .  The  nematode, 
eelworm  or  root  knot  are  various  names  applied  to  a  peculiar  plant  mal- 
formation produced  by  a  microscopic  worm.  They  live  in  the  soil  and 
gain  entrance  into  the  young  roots,  where  they  cause  swelling  or  "nod- 
ules." At  first  sight  these  little  knots  might  be  mistaken  for  large 


FIG.  300.  Root  knot  or  eelworm  at- 
tacking tomato  roots.  Similar  symp- 
toms would  be  found  on  the  alfalfa 
root  if  infested  with  the  eelworm. 


Alfalfa,  in  Kansas.  353 

nitrogen  "nodules,"  but  their  effect  on  the  alfalfa  plants  is  quite  different. 
The  knots  are  full  of  egg-filled  female  nematodes.  The  vitality  of  the 
plant  is  seriously  impaired  by  their  presence  so  much,  in  fact,  that 
eventually  the  roots  rot  and  liberate  the  eggs  into  the  soil.  These  soon 
hatch  and  the  worms  penetrate  the  roots  of  other  plants.  It  might  be 
stated  here  that  the  eelworms  are  known  to  attack  hundreds  of  different 
kinds  of  plants,  and  the  total  destruction  of  crops  is  frequent.  Although 
no  specimens  of  alfalfa  root  knot  have  been  found  in  this  state  up  to  the 
present  time,  it  is  quite  possible  that  this  disease  may  occur  in  Kansas, 
for  the  eelworm  has  been  found  attacking  and  ruining  various  crops  in 
this  state,  such  as  the  tomato  and  cucumber,  not  only  in  the  greenhouse 
but  in  the  field.  (See  Fig.  300.) 


MAMMALS  IN  RELATION  TO  ALFALFA. 

By  ROBERT  K.  NABOURS,  Zoologist,  Kansas   State  Agricultural  College. 

The  pocket  gopher  is  an  extremely  destructive  underground  enemy  of 
alfalfa.  Besides  the  direct  damage  wrought  by  the  actual  consumption 
of  the  roots,  a  large  percentage  of  badly  infested  areas  are  covered  up, 
and  the  resulting  mounds  make  difficult  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  that 
is  spared.  During  late  years,  due  perhaps  to  the  excellent  conditions 
afforded  them  by  alfalfa  fields,  the  gopher  has  multiplied  greatly  in  num- 
bers, and  has  spread  its  range  over  much  greater  areas  than  formerly. 

In  general  appearance  the  common  gopher  is  short  and  stubby,  from 
ten  to  eleven  inches  from  tip  of  nose  to  tip  of  tail,  the  tail  being  about 
three  and  one-fourth  inches  long.  The  weight  averages  about  twelve 
ounces,  the  males  being  heavier  and  broader  in  the  shoulders  than  the 


FIG  301.    The  Pocket  Gopher 


354 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


females.     Gophers  have  large  external  cheek  pockets,  which  are  entirely 
outside  of  the  mouth.     The  shoulders  and  fore  legs  are  extremely  stout 
and  full  of  strength.     The  lengthy,  strong  claws  on  the  fore  feet,  to- 
gether with  the  pair  of  long, 
sharp    incisor    teeth,    outfit 
the   gopher   as    one   of   the 

most  efficient  of  the  bur- 
rowers,  especially  among 

root  entanglements.  The 
eyes  are  diminutive,  and  the 
range  of  vision  perhaps 
very  much  limited. 

The  following  account  of 
the  gopher  is  taken  from  T. 
H.  Scheffer's  excellent  bul- 
letin (No.  172,  Kansas  Ex- 
periment Station)  : 

The  greater  number  of 
burrowing  mammals,  like 
the  prairie  dog,  the  spermo- 
phile  and  the  woodchuck, 
spend  most  of  the  daylight 
hours  in  fine  weather  above 
ground.  The  pocket  gopher 
sticks  to  the  darkness  of  his 
tunnels.  In  watching  go- 
phers push  out  the  earth 
when  extending  their  bur- 
rows I  have  never  seen  one 

FIG.   302.    Head  of  prairie  pocket  gopher,  showing    exPOPe     more     of     th«     body 

entrance  to  cheek  pockets  and  grooved  upper  incisors,    than    the   head,    and    usually 

[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.]  ,    ,  ,.  ., 

one  can  catch  a  glimpse  of 
the  nose  only,  as  with  a 

quick  upward  flirt  of  this  member  the  animal  flings  the  dirt  from  the  exit. 
As  the  earth  is  sometimes* pushed  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  tem- 
porary opening  it  is  likely  that  the  gopher  must  of  necessity  emerge 
entirely  from  his  burrow  at  times. 
This  he  no  doubt  does  under  cover  of 
darkness,  for  it  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  after  a  busy  hour  or 
so  in  the  early  morning  very  little  dirt 
flies  until  near  sunset,  except  perhaps 
on  dark,  cloudy  days.  No  evidence  of 
tracks  or  traces  of  foraging  indicates 
that  the  animal  ordinarily  ventures 
farther  than  its  mound  of  earth,  however,  even  in  the  night.  At  certain 
seasons,  though,  particularly  when  many  of  the  young  generation  of  that 
year  are  setting  up  in  business  for  themselves,  the  natural  instinct  of  all 
animals  to  extend  the  limits  of  their  range  impels  the  gopher  to  roam 


FIG.  303.     Front  foot  of  prairie  gopher. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


355 


about.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  sudden  appearance  in  late  summer  and 
in  autumn  of  new  mounds,  like  pioneer  shanties,  in  fields  remote  from 
other  gopher  habitations.  At  this  season  we  occasionally  encounter  a 
claim  seeker  abroad  even  in  the  day  time.  In  late  autumn  and  early 
winter,  too,  the  males  no  doubt  wander  about  more  or  less. 


FIG.   304.    View    of    a   gopher-infested    alfalfa   field. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

THE  BURROW.  Except  where  an  invader  has  recently  established  him- 
self in  new  territory,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  determine  the  limits 
of  a  gopher's  burrow.  The  work  of  excavating  is  usually  carried  on  at 
a  depth  of  eight  to  ten  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  the 
animal  sometimes  ranges  lower  in  loose,  sandy  soil,  where  succulent  roots 
penetrate  deeper.  The  average  diameter  of  the  burrow  of  the  prairie 
pocket  gopher  is  about  three  inches;  large  enough  that  one  may  usually 
thrust  the  hand  and  arm  back  into  it  as  far  as  he  can  reach.  These 
data  are  easily  obtained,  but  when  one  undertakes  to  map  out  the  course 
of  the  main  runway,  the  branch  tunnels  and  their  intersections,  the 
pockets  and  the  short  laterals,  he  has  before  him  a  task  that  might  well 
appall  a  military  engineer  in  the  wilds  of  a  jungle.  In  a  field  that  is 
even  fairly  well  populated  by  gophers  the  runways  of  different  individ- 
uals must  of  necessity  frequently  intersect  each  other,  for  it  can  not  be 
supposed  that  all  the  numerous  subway  crossings  one  exposes  in  digging 
along  the  tunnels  are  parts  of  one  animal's  private  labyrinth.  A  prairie 


356 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  305.  Typical  area  of  badly  infested  alfalfa  field.  This  tract  (54  ft.  x  72 
ft.)  was  caref \jfcly  mapped  after  first  dividing  it  into  small  squares  by  tightly  stretched 
lines.  The  small  irregular  patches  show  the  shape,  relative  size  and  location  of  the 
mounds  thrown  up  by  the  gophers. — [Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Fia.  306.    Same  tract  as  above,  with  all  the  runways  carefully  excavated  and  mapped. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  357 

dog  or  a  spermophile  digs  a  burrow  very  much  like  that  of  his  neighbor, 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  animals  are  constructing  homes, 
not  extending  passageways  in  search  of  food.  The  gopher  follows  his 
own  sweet  will  in  mining.  Here  a  chance  for  easier  digging  turns  him 
aside;  there  a  promising  lead  of  succulent  roots  entices  him  the  other 
way.  Heading  everywhere  in  general  and  nowhere  in  particular,  he 
may  in  the  course  of  a  year  explore  the  length  and  breadth  of  a  field  of 
many  acres.  At  irregular  intervals  he  excavates  a  short  lateral  obliquely 
upward  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Through  these  the  loosened  dirt 
is  carried  and  thrust  out  in  heaps.  The  presence  of  a  gopher  is  thus 
easily  detected  by  the  lines  of  mounds,  varying  in  size  from  a  hatful  to 
one  or  even  several  bushels  of  dirt.  A  study  of  a  fresh  mound  reveals 
the  plan  of  construction.  The  dirt  is  carried  out  of  the  opening  and  dis- 
tributed radially,  very  much  as  miners  dispose  of  the  useless  shale  from 
a  coal  pit.  Usually  the  dump  extends  only  part  way  around  the  opening, 
but  sometimes  the  mound  has  the  shape  of  a  cone  with  a  crater  at  the 
top.  Where  surface  vegetation  hinders  the  work  the  piles  of  dirt  are 
more  irregular. 

MOLE  RUNWAYS.  The  ridges  and  mounds  of  earth  thrown  up  by 
moles  are  often  incorrectly  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  gophers.  A 
little  careful  scrutiny  will  soon  reveal  the  difference.  The  gopher  piles 
up  the  dirt  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  building  a  mound  by  the  addi- 
tion of  load  after  load  on  top  of  that  already  deposited.  A  mole  simply 
heaves  up  the  dirt  from  beneath,  forming  piles  which  show  radiating 
cracks.  Associated  with  these  piles  are  the  surface  ridges  made  by  the 
animal  when  ranging  in  search  of  food.  The  feeding  runways  of  the 
gopher  never  show  in  surface  ridges. 

BREEDING.  As  might  be  expected  of  animals  living  in  such  compara- 
tive security,  the  pocket  gopher  is  not  a  very  prolific  breeder.  It  cer- 
tainly rears  but  one  litter  a  year  in  this  locality,  for  I  have  examined 
scores  of  specimens  in  all  months  of  the  year  and  have  found  the  em- 
bryos only  in  late  winter  and  early  spring.  The  number  of  young  in  a 
litter  varies  from  three  to  six,  and  averages  a  little  more  than  four. 
Very  rarely  only  two  embryos  are  found  in  the  uteri. 

NATURAL  FOOD.  The  natural  food  of  the  pocket  gopher  consists  of 
the  fleshy  roots  and  underground  stems  of  various  plants  growing 
wild  on  the  prairies.  To  this  bill  of  fare  he  adds  occasionally  a 
small  quantity  of  succulent  vegetation  drawn  down  into  his  burrow 
from  the  surface  at  points  where  exits  are  dug  for  removing  earth. 
When  foraging  thus  above  ground  he  loses  no  time  in  cramming  supplies 
into  his  cheek  pockets  and  hurrying  below  to  eat  the  stuff  at  his  leisure. 
The  underground  stems  and  roots  he  encounters  in  extending  his  bur- 
rows are  cut  into  short  pieces  of  convenient  length  to  carry,  provided  he 
does  not  care  to  dine  upon  the  spot.  The  sections  thus  made  are  com- 
monly an  inch  or  two  in  length,  sometimes  shorter,  but  I  have  found 
stores  of  alfalfa  roots  in  which  dozens  of  the  pieces  ranged  from  four 
to  eight  inches  long.  These,  of  course,  the  animal  must  carry  or  drag 
to  the  storeroom  without  the  aid  of  his  pockets.  The  same  is  necessarily 


358  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

true  of  the  large  cultivated  tubers  he  often  steals  from  the  fields  or  bins 
of  the  unlucky  farmer.  Observations  on  the  habits  of  a  pocket  gopher 
kept  in  captivity  by  Doctor  Merriam,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  seemed  to 
indicate  that  the  animal  when  thus  storing  his  larder  can  travel  as 
easily  and  as  readily  backward  as  forward.  The  writer  states  that  the 
gopher  moved  back  and  forth  from  food  supply  to  storeroom  like  a 
shuttle  on  its  track,  rarely  turning  around  after  securing  a  load.  In  its 
backward  progression  the  sensitive  tail  served  as  an  organ  of  touch. 

The  popular  idea  that  the  gopher  uses  his  cheek  pockets  for  carrying 
out  the  earth  from  his  burrow  is  certainly  erroneous.  I  have  watched 
many  gophers  at  work,  and  noted  that  the  process  of  removing  the 
earth  is  always  the  same:  the  dirt  is  pushed  ahead  of  the  animal  in 
armfuls.  Examination  of  the  pockets  of  gophers  shot  in  the  act  of  re- 
moving earth,  or  trapped  at  any  time,  reveals  no  traces  of  contained 
ea.rth.  At  this  point  it  might  be  well  to  state  also  that  no  part  of  a 
gopher's  runway  necessarily  extends  down  to  a  supply  of  water,  as  cur- 
rently supposed.  Like  many  other  animals  that  feed  upon  more  or  less 
succulent  vegetation,  sufficient  water  for  the  tissues  of  the  body  is  ob- 
tained in  the  food. 

ACTIVE  SEASON.  The  pocket  gopher  seems  to  be  busy  at  any  season 
of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen  too  hard  and  too  deep  for 
mining  operations.  Not  uncommonly  we  see  mounds  of  fresh  earth 
thrown  up  from  beneath  the  snows  of  midwinter.  It  is  unlikely,  there- 
fore, that,  strictly  speaking,  the  animal  ever  hibernates  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  During  the  briefer  periods  of  particularly  inclement 
weather  in  the  winter  no  mounds  are  thrown  up,  and  if  the  animal  bur- 
rows lower  then  to  escape  the  frost,  as  some  have  observed,  he  must  dis- 
pose of  the  earth  in  tunnels  or  pockets  previously  excavated.  It  is  my 
belief,  however,  that  the  gopher  spends  these  stormy  periods  near  the 
supplies  of  stored  food.  Evidence  of  this  habit  is  given  by  certain 
mounds  thrown  up  in  the  spring  that  are  made  up  almost  wholly  of 
crumbling  pellets  of  excrement  and  fragments  of  nest  material.  October 
and  November  is  a  season  of  particular  activity.  Impelled  by  instinct, 
that  exacts  obedience  without  forecasting  the  winter,  the  gophers  then 
extend  their  runways  in  all  directions  in  search  of  food  for  their  under- 
ground cellars.  At  this  time  of  year  the  best  results  can  usually  be 
obtained  in  poisoning  or  trapping  the  animals.  In  the  spring,  again, 
after  the  frost  has  left  the  ground,  this  activity  is  renewed  for  a  time; 
but  when  the  season  for  breeding  and  rearing  the  young  comes  on  ex- 
tension of  the  burrows  receives  less  attention. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  gopher  is  a  solitary  animal;  that  no  two  in- 
dividuals ever  occupy  the  same  burrow  except  in  the  mating  season. 
This  statement  is  not  in  accordance  with  my  observations,  for  I  have  on 
several  occasions  trapped  a  second  gopher  by  resetting  at  the  same  open- 
ing into  a  burrow.  This  was  in  the  early  fall,  too;  not  in  the  mating 
season. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES.  Since  the  pocket  gopher  so  seldom  shows  itself 
outside  of  its  subterranean  galleries,  it  has  little  to  fear  from  the 
natural  enemies  of  the  rodent  race.  It  is  not  entirely  safe  from  attack, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  359 

however,  for  a  few  sharp-eyed  and  vigilant  foes  habitually  capture 
numbers  of  gophers  when  they  come  to  the  mouths  of,  their  burrows  to 
push  out  a  load  of  earth.  Hawks  and  owls  take  toll  at  these  favorable 
moments,  and  many  a  house  cat  has  learned  the  trick  of  capturing  a 
meal  then  with  little  difficulty. 

The  gopher's  habit  of  confining  active  operations  in  mining  mainly  to  the 
hours  of  twilight  particularly  favors  the  owls  and  the  cat.  The  great 
horned  owl,  the  long-eared  owl,  and  the  barn  owl,  particularly  the  last 
named,  render  valuable  service  in.  keeping  down  the  numbers  of  these  de- 
structive rodents.  A  single  pair  of  owls  nesting  on  the  farm  has  been 
known  to  destroy  scores  of  gophers  in  a  brief  season.  Sometimes  they 
live  on  nothing  else  for  a  time,  as  evidenced  by  the  pellets  of  bones  and 
fur  which,  like  most  birds  of  prey,  they  invariably  disgorge  after  a  meal. 

Instances  of  a  house  cat  becoming  addicted  to  the  gopher  habit  are  not 
uncommon.  In  a  number  of  cases  that  were  reported  directly  to  me, 
mother  cats  brought  in  several  gophers  a  day,  regularly  as  clockwork,  to 
their  families  of  kittens.  In  many  instances  of  reported  gopher  catching, 
however,  the  informant  has  had  in  mind  the  little  striped  "gopher,"  or 
ground  squirrel. 

Two  enemies  that  in  some  localities  are  said  to  hold  the  pocket  gopher 
in  check  more  than  all  others  are  the  weasel  and  the  bull  snake.  The 
former  is  too  scarce  in  most  parts  of  Kansas  to  be  worth  considering  in 
this  relation,  but  the  bull  snake  is  common  enough  on  farms  whose  owners 
or  tenants  have  had  the  wisdom  and  forethought  to  protect  the  natural 
enemies  of  the  destructive  rodent  tribe.  The  snake  would,  of  course,  be 
able  to  gain  entrance  to  the  gopher's  burrow  only  when  the  latter  was 
temporarily  left  open,  but  once  inside  he  would  probably  remain  there 
for  some  time  and  make  things  interesting  for  the  occupants.  When  one 
is  trapping  gophers  he  will  occasionally  surprise  a  bull  snake  in  the  act 
of  trying  to  swallow  the  captured  animal,  trap  and  all.  I  have  also  found 
this  snake  in  the  burrow  of  the  striped  spermophile,  helping  himself  to  a 
nestful  of  the  young  of  the  latter,  and  have  seen  him  capture  and  kill  the 
adult  spermophile  at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow. 

The  little  striped  skunk  (Spilogale  interrupta)  should  not  be  left  out 
of  account  in  discussing  the  natural  enemies  of  the  pocket  gopher.  I  had 
not  supposed  that  these  animals  could  make  their  way  through  the  bur- 
rows of  the  gopher,  and  had  laid  to  the  charge  of  weasels  a  number  of 
cases  of  killing  and  feeding  on  gophers  imprisoned  in  steel  traps.  Finally 
I  resorted  to  setting  traps  a  second  time  in  the  mouths  of  the  burrows 
where  a  gopher  had  been  partly  eaten,  and  in  two  instances  succeeded  in 
capturing  a  little  striped  skunk.  There  was  no  question  in  either  case 
but  that  the  skunk  had  entered  the  burrow  at  some  point  remote  from 
the  location  of  the  trap,  for  the  opening  through  which  the  trap  had  been 
introduced  had  been  carefully  covered  with  a  board  and  loose  earth;  this 
covering  was  undisturbed.  In  comparing  this  slender  little  skunk's  body 
with  the  diameter  of  many  of  the  gopher  burrows  in  alfalfa  fields  it  will 
be  seen  at  once  that  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  for  the  skunk  to  make  his 
way  through  the  underground  passages.  The  additional  fact  that,  by 
digging,  he  can  enter  the  burrow  at  any  point  and  corner  the  occupant  in 


360  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

some  lateral  or  pocket  tunnel  renders  the  little  striped  skunk  especially 
valuable  as  a  gopher  catcher. 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  we  can  not,  except  in  a  few  favored 
localities,  depend  upon  the  natural  forces  to  keep  in  check  the  increase  of 
the  pocket  gopher.  By  increasing  the  acreage  of  alfalfa  we  are  producing 
the  very  conditions  that  are  favorable  to  the  most  rapid  multiplication  of 
the  species;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  by  thoughtlessly  or  wantonly  destroy- 
ing harmless  owls,  hawks,  bull  snakes,  and  certain  mammals,  we  still 
further  interfere  with  nature's  efforts  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  in 
the  animal  world.  The  worst  that  can  be  said  of  the  enemies  of  the  pocket 
gopher  is  that  the  great  horned  owl,  the  weasel  and  the  skunk  sometimes 
destroy  domestic  fowls.  But  a  little  wise  precaution  in  shutting  up  coops 
at  night  would  prevent  these  inroads  on  the  poultry  industry. 

Crops  Damaged. 

The  economic  status  of  the  pocket  gopher  has  changed  in  the  last  few 
decades.  There  was  a  time  when  their  work  was  of  real  benefit  to  the 
future  interests  of  agriculture.  For  untold  centuries  they  have  been 
mixing  the  soil  of  the  prairies,  bringing  up  the  subsoil  to  mellow,  and 
covering  up  vegetation  to  molder  and  add  humus  to  the  clays  and  sand. 
But  now  that  the  virgin  soil  has  been  prepared  for  us  we  would  gladly 
dispense  with  their  services,  for  their  presence  is  now  seriously  detri- 
mental to  our  interests. 

ALFALFA. — The  damage  to  cultivated  plants  results  not  only  from  the 
animal's  eating  roots  or  stems,  but  also  from  its  habit  of  throwing  up 
numerous  mounds  of  earth,  which  very  often  cover  considerable  areas  of 
the  growing  crops  and  obstruct  the  later  harvesting  of  the  remainder. 
Indeed,  it  would  scarcely  be  worth  while  in  many  instances  to  make  such 
vigorous  warfare  on  the  gopher  if  the  only  issue  at  stake  was  the  kind 
or  quantity  of  food  he  pilfered.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of 
alfalfa.  No  other  one  of  the  important  crops  of  the  state  has  suf- 
fered so  much  from  the  ravages  of  the  pocket  gopher  as  this  valuable 
plant.  From  a  gopher's  standpoint  conditions  of  life  are  easy  in  a  field 
of  alfalfa.  The  ground  is  not  worked  for  years  at  a  time,  at  least  not 
deep  enough  to  interfere  with  the  underground  runways.  Again,  the 
roots  of  the  plant  are  fleshy  and  toothsome  and  penetrate  deep  into  the 
soil,  where  they  may  be  encountered  in  abundance  at  the  usual  depth  at 
which  the  animal  ranges.  They  are  there,  too,  at  any  time  of  the  year  to 
satisfy  the  appetite  of  the  hungry  rodent.  As  a  result  of  these  favorable 
conditions  gophers  have  multiplied  at  an  alarming  rate  in  recent  years 
wherever  alfalfa  is  extensively  grown.  In  the  river  valleys  of  central 
Kansas  particularly  I  have  seen  fields  of  thirty  or  forty  acres  in  which 
one  might  walk  over  the  entire  tract  by  stepping  from  one  gopher  mound 
to  another.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  these  cases  not  less  than  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  actual  acreage  of  the  field  was  covered,  and  therefore 
a  total  loss.  Much  of  that  which  remains  is  necessarily  weakened  by 
the  loss  of  portions  of  the  root  system. 

Even  a  few  gophers  in  an  alfalfa  field  become  an  intolerable  nuisance 
by  obstructing  the  work  of  mowing  the  crop.  The  man  who  is  running 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  361 


the  machine  must  be  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  the  mounds,  so  that 
he  may  raise  the  sickle-bar  until  the  obstruction  is  passed.  Thus  much 
extra  work  is  entailed  and  a  portion  of  the  crop  is  lost  by  running  the 
sickle  too  high.  If  the  operator  does  not  see  the  mound  in  time  it  is  very 
likely  to  clog  the  machine,  or  at  least  one  or  more  sections  of  the  sickle 
may  be  dulled  or  nicked  by  encountering  gravel  or  pebbles.  If  the  ground 
is  reasonably  mellow  the  horses  drawing  the  mower  stumble  frequently, 
their  feet  breaking  through  into  the  runways  of  the  gopher.  Sometimes 
the  holes  thus  formed  are  not  filled  again  from  below,  and  the  rains 
washing  in  enlarge  the  openings  to  a  pit  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter. 

JT 


FIG.   307.    A  prod  for  locating  runways  of  the  pocket  gopher   and  making  openings 
for  the  introduction  of  poisoned  bait. —  [Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 

Methods  of  Combating. 

POISONING.  Gophers  do  not  possess  the  shrewdness  and  cunning  that 
have  become  instinctive  in  many  other  wild  creatures  because  of  the  con- 
stant necessity  imposed  upon  the  latter  of  avoiding  and  escaping  enemies. 
Later  experience  in  the  wiles  of  man  has  evidently  taught  them  nothing, 
for  they  seldom  reject  any  kind  of  poisoned  food  offered  them. 

As  stated  before,  poisoning  is  the  more  thorough  and  easily  applied 
method  of  ridding  a  badly  infested  farm  of  the  pest.  It  is  also  the  best 
method  if  the  territory  to  be  freed  from  gophers  is  of  considerable  ex- 
tent. In  either  of  the  above  cases  one  man  can  accomplish  as  much  with 
poisoned  bait  as  a  half  dozen  could  in  the  same  time  with  traps.  The 
danger  of  killing  stock  or  useful  birds  and  animals,  attending  the  use  of 
poison  for  prairie  dogs,  English  sparrows  and  the  like,  is  entirely 
eliminated  by  the  plan  of  introducing  the  bait  through  small  openings 
into  the  gophers'  burrows. 

Since  the  pocket  gopher  lives  naturally  on  the  roots  and  tubers  of 
native  plants,  or  on  succulent  vegetation  drawn  down  into  the  burrow 

from  the  surface,  it  follows  that  a 
close  substitute  for  these  articles 
will  make  the  best  bait  for  poison- 
ing. Knowledge  gained  by  per- 
sonal experiments  and  by  careful 
FIG.  308.  A  handy^tool  for  use  in  inquiry  among  farmers  and  fruit 

[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment   Station.]         growers    goes    to    show   that    pieces 

of  potato,   apple   or  sweet  potato, 

poisoned  by  inserting  a  few  crystals  of  strychnine  into  slits  made  with  the 
point  of  a  knife,  answer  the  purpose  very  well.  Some  correspondents 
have  reported  good  results  from  soaking  the  baits  in  a  solution  of  arsenic 
or  strychnine.  Only  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  former  substance  can  be 
obtained  in  water,  however,  and  the  presence  of  particles  of  the  free  poison 
on  the  surface  of  the  bait  would  be  more  likely  to  cause  its  rejection  than 
if  they  were  concealed  in  small  slits.  Raisins  and  prunes,  treated  like  the 
pieces  of  potato  or  apple,  seem  to  be  very  effective  baits  also.  Our  ex- 


362  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

perience  with  specially  prepared  tablets  sold  under  patented  formulas 
does  not  warrant  us  in  recommending  them. 

Several  years  ago  the  state,  through  a  special  agent,  Prof.  D.  E. 
Lantz,  purchased  the  right  to  manufacture  and  distribute  a  certain  pro- 
prietary poison,  the  active  principles  of  which  are  strychnine  and  cya- 
nide of  potassium.  This  poison  was  intended  to  be  used  in  destroying 
the  prairie  dogs  on  the  cattle  ranges  of  the  West,  but  it  was  found  that 
by  leaving  out  one  ingredient — the  cyanide  of  potassium — a  very  effi- 
cient poison  for  pocket  gophers  could  be  prepared.  After  the  state's 
contract  with  the  special  agent  had  expired  by  time  limit  the  work  of 
manufacturing  and  distributing  this  poison  was  turned  over  to  the  de- 
partment of  zoology  in  the  college.  The  poison  is  put  up  in  the  form  of 
a  syrup  and  sent  out  in  quart  cans  to  any  part  of  the  state.  On  each 
can  is  a  printed  label  giving  the  formula  used  in  preparing  the  poison 
and  full  directions  for  its  use.  Experiments  personally  conducted  on 
the  station  grounds  and  elsewhere  have  borne  out  the  uniformly  favor- 
able reports,  from  alfalfa  growers  particularly,  as  to  the  merits  of  the 
poison.  We  therefore  recommend  this  poison  syrup  as  the  best  means 
we  have  discovered  so  far  for  the  destruction  of  pocket  gophers.  The 
syrup  is  sold  by  the  college  at  90  cents  per  quart  can. 

The  method  of  using  this  poison  commends  itself  as  a  time  saver. 
Pour  boiling  water  over  as  much  shelled  corn  as  you  will  need — the  quart 
of  syrup  will  poison  a  half  bushel — and  let  it  stand  several  hours  to 
swell  and  soften.  Drain  off  the  water  and  pour  over  the  grain  enough 
of  the  syrup  to  render  it  sticky  when  thoroughly  stirred  together. 
Sweeten  the  mass  with  a  little  good  table  syrup  and  add  a  little  cornmeal 
to  take  up  the  excess  moisture,  but  not  enough  to  leave  any  dry  meal. 
Cork  up  the  syrup  can  tightly  and  place  it  out  of  reach  of  children  and 
domestic  animals.  It  will  keep  indefinitely  and  is  ready  for  use  at  any 
time. 

The  soaked  corn,  poisoned  as  above,  is  introduced  into  the  burrows  of 
the  igophers,  a  few  grains  at  a  place,  by  means  of  an  old  spoon.  Openings 
into  the  burrows  must  first  be  made  with  a  sharp  stick — a  sharpened 
broom  handle  will  serve  the  purpose — or  a  spade  handle  shod  with  an  iron 
point  and  having  an  iron  foot-bar  some  distance  from  the  end  to  aid  in 
making  the  thrust.  Experience  will  soon  enable  one  to  tell  when  he  has 
struck  the  burrow,  which  can  be  located  approximately  by  getting  on  a 
line  between  two  mounds  of  earth.  After  dropping  in  the  poisoned  grain 
the  hole  may  be  left  open,  or  if  closed  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow 
dirt  to  fall  in  and  cover  up  the  bait.  If  the  hole  is  left  open  the  gopher 
is  likely  to  be  attracted  by  the  light  and  find  the  bait  the  sooner. 

The  same  method  of  introducing  the  poison  into  the  burrows  is  em- 
ployed also  when  raisins  and  prunes  or  pieces  of  apple  and  potato  are 
used.  The  presence  of  freshly  thrown-up  mounds  indicates  that  the 
animal  is  extending  his  runways  in  that  quarter,  and  it  is  best  to  con- 
fine one's  poisoning  operations  to  such  places.  If  the  field  can  be  dragged 
over  with  a  harrow  or  plank  a  few  days  after  the  poison  has  been  put  out 
new  mounds  can  be  readily  detected  and  fresh  poison  distributed.  If  the 
work  was  thoroughly  done  in  the  first  place  it  usually  takes  but  a  few 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


363 


Fjg.3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


FIG.   309.     1.  Newhouse  gopher  trap.     2.  Out  O'  Sight  gopher  trap.     3.  Cali- 
fornia gopher  trap.     4.  Newhouse  trap  as  modified  for  use  at  the  Kansas  Experi- 
ment Station.     5.   Steel  trap  No.  0.     6.  The  steel  jump  trap. 
[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


364  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

minutes  to  go  over  the  field  a  second  time.  The  few  remaining  gophers, 
if  any,  may  become  wary,  and  in  that  case  they  should  be  trapped. 

A  few  experiments  performed  on  a  rather  extensive  scale  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  a  more  acceptable  bait  than  soaked  corn  is  to  be  found  in 
finely  chopped  sweet  potatoes.  These  potatoes  are  put  in  a  box  and  cut 
up  with  a  sharp  spade  until  the  pieces  average  about  the  size  of  the  end 
of  one's  finger.  They  are  then  treated  with  poisoned  syrup  as  in  the 
case  of  the  corn.  This  bait  should  be  put  out  when  freshly  made,  as  it  is 
likely  to  mold  if  left  standing  about  for  any  considerable  length  of  time. 

The  best  time  of  the  year  to  poison  gophers  is  when  they  are  most 
active  in  extending  their  burrows.  This  is  usually  in  the  late  fall,  for 
they  are  then  laying  in  stores  of  provisions  for  the  winter.  Spring  is  a 
period  of  renewed  activity,  and  poison  may  be  successfully  used  at  this 
time  also.  In  fact,  it  will  pay  to  make  war  on  pocket  gophers  at  any 
time  when  they  are  seen  to  be  active. 

FUMIGATION.  The  use  of  carbon  bisulphide  vapor  or  the  fumes  of  burn- 
ing sulphur  as  agents  for  destroying  the  pocket  gopher  is  not  recom- 
mended by  this  station. 

TRAPPING.  Although  somewhat  slow,  there  is  no  surer  method  of 
ridding  one's  premises  of  pocket  gophers  than  by  trapping.  When  you 
have  the  animal  fast  in  the  jaws  of  a  trap  you  are  certain  that  his  career 
of  uselessness  is  over.  If  the  gopher  were  as  wise  as  a  rat  we  would  not 
be  permitted  to  indulge  this  feeling  very  often,  but  a  long  series  of  ex- 
periments has  convinced  me  that  he  will  blunder  into  almost  any  sort  of 
trap  that  is  set  for  him,  no  matter  how  we  set  it. 

Summary. 

1.  The  prairie  pocket  gopher  is  most  abundant  in  the  central  and  north- 
eastern parts  of  the  state,  particularly  in  the  region  drained  by  the  Kan- 
sas river  and  the  lower  courses  of  its  main  tributaries.     The  plains 
pocket  gopher  is  found  in  more  scattering  numbers  in  the  western  third 
of  the  state  and  down  the  Arkansas  valley  to  some  distance  east  of  the 
great  bend.    Southeastern  Kansas  is  comparatively  free  from  gophers. 

2.  The  gopher  digs  extensive  runways  in  the  subsoil  of  wild  lands  and 
cultivated  fields,  piling  the  excavated  earth  in  mounds  on  the  surface. 
These  runways  have  no  exit  above  ground.    A  single  animal  will  throw 
up  several  mounds  a  day  for  weeks  at  a  time.    A  gopher  spends  his  en- 
tire time  in  his  underground  burrow. 

3.  Gophers  breed  in  the  late  winter   and  early   spring.     Pregnant 
females  may  be  found  from  January  to  May,  but  the  young  are  nearly 
all  born  in  March  and  April.    There  is  but  one  brood  a  year.    The  num- 
ber of  young  varies  from  three  to  six,  and  averages  a  little  more  than 
four. 

4.  The  natural  food  of  the  pocket  gopher  consists  of  the  fleshy  roots 
it  encounters  in  extending  the  runways,  with  the  addition  of  some  suc- 
culent vegetation  drawn  down  into  the  burrow  from  above  ground.    Some 
food  is  stored  in  underground  chambers  for  winter  use. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  365 

5.  Gophers  are  active  at  all  seasons,  but  particularly  so  in  the  fall 
and  spring.    They  do  not  hibernate.    They  throw  up  mounds  any  day  in 
the  year  when  the  ground  is  not  frozen  too  hard  for  mining  operations. 

6.  The  pocket  gopher,  by  reason  of  his  secluded  life,  has  but  few 
natural  enemies.     Bull  snakes,  weasels,  owls,  cats  and  striped  skunks 
destroy  some  of  them,  but  can  not  be  depended  upon  to  keep  them  in 
check. 

7.  Cultivated  crops  are  damaged  by  the  attacks  of  gophers  on  their 
root  systems  and  by  being  covered  with  excavated  earth.     Much  loss  to 
the  farmer  also  occurs  through  the  obstruction  of  harvesting  operations 
occasioned  by  the  presence  of  the  mounds.     The  alfalfa  grower  has  the 
most  ground  for  complaint,  but  nurserymen,  orchardists,  truckers  and 
potato  farmers  also  suffer  heavy  losses. 

8.  We  have  in  Kansas  two  laws  affecting  the  gopher — one  a  com- 
pulsory extermination  law,  the  other  a  bounty  law.    The  compulsory  ex- 
termination law  has  two  weak  points,  which  render  it  practically  inop- 
erative.    The  bounty  law  has  been  tried  and  found  wanting.     Better 
results  can  be  obtained,  and  at  much  less  cost,  by  the  plan  of  furnishing 
poison  at  the  expense  of  the  county  or  township. 

9.  Poisoning  is  the  best  method  of  combating  the  pocket  gopher  we 
have  so  far  discovered.    Trapping  is  effective,  but  slower  than  poisoning. 
Fumigation  does  not  give  good  results,  and  therefore  we  do  not  recom- 
mend it.     The  poisoned  baits  that  have  given  us  the  best  results  are 
soaked  corn  or  finely  chopped  sweet  potatoes  treated  with  a  syrup  pre- 
pared by  the  Experiment  Station.    Raisins,  prunes  and  pieces  of  apple, 
potato  and  sweet  potato,  into  which  crystals  of  strychnine  have  been  in- 
serted, also  make  excellent  baits,  but  require  much  more  time  in  prepara- 
tion than  the  syrup-treated  corn  or  sweet-potato  baits. 

10.  Extermination  of  the  pocket  gopher  in  Kansas  is  not  to  be  looked 
for,  but  communities  may  be  entirely  freed  from  the  pest  by  persistent 
and  concerted  action  on  the  part  of  landowners.      (See  "Gopher,"   in 
index.) 

THE   PRAIRIE  DOG. 

In  the  past  the  prairie  dog  has  been  harmful  principally  to  wheat, 
barley  and  pasture  lands.  However,  with  the  increasing  acreage  of 
alfalfa  this  rodent  has  come  into  a  new  importance.  Complaint  is  com- 
ing not  only  from  Kansas  but  from  neighboring  states  that  the  prairie 
dog  is  doing  considerable  damage  to  alfalfa.  On  account  of  the  suc- 
culence, general  desirability  and  abundance  of  this  new  food,  prairie 
dogs  not  only  thrive  on  it,  but  their  destruction  by  means  of  poisoned 
baits  is  made  more  difficult. 

Of  all  means  so  far  tested,  poisoning  with  a  syrup  manufactured  by 
the  zoology  department  of  the  Agricultural  College  at  Manhattan  has 
proven  the  most  successful.  This  poisoned  syrup  was  so  effectively  used 
during  the  period  1900-1910  that  the  prairie  dog  was  largely  eradicated 
from  the  state.  However,  in  late  years,  due  to  a  let-up  in  the  work  of 
eradication,  there  has  been  a  reinvasion.  The  College  has  published  a 


366  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

circular  on  the  prairie-dog  situation  which  describes  the  methods  of 
eradication.  This  circular  will  be  sent  free  on  application.  (See  "Prairie 
Dog,"  in  index.) 

THE   MOLE. 

Since  the  diet  of  moles  consists  almost  entirely  of  various  insects, 
grubs  and  worms  found  in  the  soil,  and  scarcely  of  any  vegetable  matter 
at  all,  and  since  the  near-surface  roots  of  alfalfa  interfere  with  the  work 
of  burrowing,  moles  are  not  usually  abundant  in  alfalfa  fields.  However, 
the  mounds  thrown  up  by  gophers  are  frequently  mistaken  for  the  work  of 
moles. 


I  like  to  say  something  for  alfalfa,  for  it  has  made  me  thousands  of 
dollars. — A  Barber  county  correspondent. 

We  have  learned  some  expensive  alfalfa  lessons  during  the  past  winter. 
The  trouble  is  that  we  like  it  too  well.  We  appreciate  its  unexcelled 
feeding  value,  and  it  breaks  our  heart  to  keep  the  hungry  cows  and  pigs 
away  from  it.  It  looks  like  a  shameful  waste  to  leave  five  or  six  inches 
of  growth  in  the  field  when  there  are  hungry  cattle  and  hogs  in  the  barn. 
So  we  cut  a  late  fall  hay  crop,  or  turn  the  stock  into  it,  and  the  next  year, 
likely  as  not,  do  without.  It  is  a  dear  price  to  pay  for  that  last  crop  or 
that  last  month's  pasturage.  We  will  learn  to  appreciate  alfalfa  more, 
perhaps,  by  doing  without  it  this  year,  and  maybe  we  will  take  to  heart 
the  lesson  we  have  learned. — Prairie  Farmer. 

I  regard  alfalfa  as  the  product  necessary  to  make  this  western  portion 
of  the  state  a  prosperous  stock-raising  locality.  It  is  a  feed  that  can  be 
fed  profitably  to  horses,  to  cattle,  to  hogs  and  to  sheep.  Because  of  the 
valleys  with  streams  of  running  water,  and  the  shallow-water  localities, 
the  western  tier  of  counties  is  well  suited  to  its  growth.  Alfalfa,  to- 
gether with  the  large  acreage  of  grass  land  which  furnishes  pasture,  will 
make  this  western  part  of  Kansas  a  successful  and  prosperous  part  of  the 
state  for  raising  and  feeding  horses,  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep,  because  we 
have  not  only  the  best  kind  of  a  climate  in  which  to  care  for  the  crop, 
but  also  we  have  the  best  kind  of  winters  in  which  to  feed  the  stock. — 
A  Sherman  county  correspondent. 

Economy  of  soil  fertility  demands  that  a  gross-feeding  crop  like  alfalfa 
be  fed  at  home  and  ^iot  sold  as  hay.  Perhaps  in  the  course  of  years 
alfalfa  hay  will  become  plentiful  enough  even  in  the  corn  belt  to  make  its 
sale  unprofitable.  That  would  be  a  good  thing  for  the  land.  In  the 
meantime  some  figuring  on  its  utilization  at  home  is  in  order.  No  man 
is  in  a  better  position  to  make  money  feeding  alfalfa  hay  than  the  man 
who  grows  it.  It  should  be  worth  as  much  to  him  as  to  anybody  else. 
Since  he  gets  it  without  baling  and  transportation  cost,  he  has  a  big 
advantage.  A  crop  of  hay  worth  $50  to  $75  per  acre,  and  sometimes 
even  $100,  looks  like  easy  money,  but  if  it  can  be  fed  to  stock,  and  make 
gains  worth  that  much,  there  is  the  cash  return  and  the  valuable  manure 
besides. — Breeder's  Gazette. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


367 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  ALFALFA. 

By  GEO.  A.  DEAN,  Entomologist,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Like  most  of  the  field  crops,  alfalfa  suffers  from  the  attacks  of  many 
kinds  of  insects.  No  part  of  the  plant  escapes  attack.  The  roots,  stems, 
leaves,  flowers  and  seed  are  eaten  by  a  great  variety  of  them.  Even 
alfalfa  hay  is  the  special  food  of  certain  caterpillars.  A  field  of  alfalfa, 
especially  when  in  bloom,  is  alive  with  insects,  some  of  which  are  bene- 
ficial while  others  are  very  injurious.  Many  of  those  which  rely  wholly 
or  in  part  on  alfalfa  for  their  food  are  too  scarce  to  do  appreciable 
damage.  However,  there  are  several  species  which  may  appear  in  such 
large  numbers  that  the  crop  in  large  sections  is  destroyed  and  great 
damage  is  done.  It  is  with  these  injurious  species  that  this  discussion 
is  concerned.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  many  of  the  insects  that  are  at- 
tacking alfalfa  are  those  that  are  classed  as  clover  insects,  and  thus  are 
named  after  the  clover  plant  rather  than  the  alfalfa. 

THE   CLOVER-ROOT   BORER. 

(Hylastinus  obscurus  Marsham.) 

The  adult,  a  small,  dark-brown,  hard-bodied  beetle,  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  long.  The  larva  a  dirty-white,  footless,  maggot-like  worm  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  yellow  head,  brown  jaws,  and  is  found 
within  the  main  root  of  the  plant,  eating  out  the  contents.  (Fig.  310.) 


FIG.  311.  Clover-root 
borer.  Larva  or  grub ; 
enlarged.  (After  Webster, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


FIG.  310.  Clover- root 
borer  (Hylastinus  ob- 
scurus). Adult  insect; 
12  times  natural  size. 
(After  Webster,  U.  S. 
Dept  Agr.) 


History  and  Distribution. 

This  insect  is  a  native  of  Europe,  where  it  has  been  known  for  more 
than  a  century.  In  1878  it  became  destructive  in  New  York,  but  prob- 
ably occurred  in  the  United  States  long  before  that  date.  It  is  now  dis- 
tributed from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  valley  states,  and  since  it  is 
working  rapidly  westward  it  will  probably  not  be  many  years  before  it  is 
as  serious  a  pest  in  the  alfalfa-growing  states  as  it  is  in  the  clover- 
growing  states. 


368 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Habits  and  Life  History. 

"There  is  certainly  but  one  generation  annually,  though  this  appears 
to  be  long-drawn-out,  and  scattering  individual  larvae  and  pupae  may  be 
found  throughout  every  month  of  the  year.  (Fig.  311.)  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  insects  pass  the  winter  in  the  adult 
stage  within  the  roots  where  they  develop.  Dur- 
ing May  they  abandon  the  old  roots  and  seek  out 
fresh  plants  or  fields  in  which  to  lay  their  eggs. 
The  female  gouges  out  a  shallow  cavity,  more 
often  in  the  crown  of  the  plant  (Fig.  312),  some- 
times at  the  sides  of  the  root,  even  two  or  three 
inches  below  the  crown,  and  in  this  places  singly, 
but  not  far  apart,  about  half  a  dozen  pale,  whitish, 
elliptical,  very  minute  eggs.  These  hatch  in  about 
a  week,  and  the  larvae,  for  a  time,  feed  in  the 
excavation  made  by  the  mother,  but  soon  burrow 
downward  into  the  root,  and  before  the  first  of 
August  the  majority. of  them  have  become  fully 
grown  and  passed  into  the  pupal  stage.  By  Oc- 
tober nearly  all  have  become  fully  developed 
beetles,  but  make  no  attempt  to  leave  the  plant 
until  the  following  spring."1 

Usually  the  insect  does  not  attack  alfalfa  and 
clover  the  first  year  on  account  of  the  roots  being 
too  small  to  furnish  sufficient  accommodations. 
Infested  plants  will  die  sooner  or  later,  the  time 
depending  upon  the  weather  conditions.  The 
presence  of  the  insect  is  indicated  by  the  alfalfa 
dying  out  in  patches.  If  the  season  is  dry  these 
spots  will  appear  shortly  after  the  first  cutting, 
but  if  there  is  plenty  of  rain  or  good  growing  con- 
ditions these  patches  will  not  appear  until  late 
fall,  or  maybe  not  until  spring. 

Methods  of  Control. 

The  only  reliable  measure  to  be  suggested  is 
to  plow  up  the  field  as  soon  as  the  first  crop  is 

removed.  This  plowing  must  not  be  delayed,  for  the  larvae  will  then 
have  passed  into  the  pupal  stage,  and  plowing  would  not  injure  them  to 
any  extent. 

CLOVER-ROOT   CURCULIO. 

(Sitones  hispidultis  Fab.) 

The  adult,  black,  hard-bodied  beetle,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. 
Found  eating  irregular  patches  from  the  margin  of  the  leaf.  (Fig. 
313.)  The  larva,  a  white,  footless  baggot-like  grub,  with  a  light 
chocolate-brown  head,  when  full  grown  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  Found  eating  cavities  along  the  main  roots.  (Fig.  314.) 


FIG.  312.  Clover  root 
showing  work  of  the 
clover-root  borer ;  slightly 
enlarged.  (After  Webster, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


1.    Cir.  67,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


369 


History  and  Distribution. 

This  insect,  which  is  of  foreign  origin,  was  first  noticed  in  the 
country  in  1876,  when  the  beetles  were  found  about  the  roots  of  grass  in 
New  Jersey.  It  is  now  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States.  It 
occurs  more  often  on  clo.ver  growing  along  roadsides,  but  within  the  last 
few  years  it  has  been  found  doing  serious  injury  in  several  parts  of  the1 
country. 


FIG.  313.  Clover-root 
curculio  (Sitones  hispidu- 
lus).  Adult;  greatly  en- 
larged. (After  Wilder- 
muth,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


FIG.  314.  Clover-root 
curculio.  Larva ;  greatly 
enlarged.  (After  Wilder- 
muth,  U  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  following  paragraphs  relating  to  the  life  history  of  the  clover- 
root  curculio  are  taken  in  substance  from  Mr.  Wildermuth.2 

The  clover-root  curculio  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  form,  hiding 
under  rubbish  and  leaves  close  to  the  ground.  With  the  first  warm  days 
of  spring  the  beetles  come  forth  and  the  females  begin  to  lay  their  eggs 
upon  the  plants  on  the  roots  of  which  the  larvae  are  to  feed.  The  adults 
feed  on  the  leaves,  eating  out  irregular  patches  from  the  margin  of  the 
leaf.  (Fig.  315.)  The  adults  endeavor  to  escape  injury  by  feigning 
death.  If  the  leaf  upon  which  the  beetle  is  feeding  or  resting  is  touched 
the  beetle  drops  to  the  ground  and  lies  there  as  if  dead.  The  eggs  may 
not  only  be  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  clover  and  alfalfa  leaves,  but 
may  also  be  laid  on  the  ground  near  the  plant.  The  eggs  when  first  laid 
are  whitish,  but  within  less  than  a  day  change  in  color  to  shiny  black. 
In  about  two  weeks  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae  immediately  go  down 
into  the  ground. 

At  first  the  larvae  feed  on  small,  tender,  fibrous  roots,  but  as  they 
reach  maturity  they  attack  the  larger  roots,  eating  large  cavities  or 
grooves  into  them.  (Fig.  315.)  Within  about  three  weeks  the  larvae  are 
full  grown,  and  after  making  an  earthen  cell  pass  into  the  pupal  stage. 
The  pupal  stage  is  from  eight  to  ten  days.  There  seems  to  be  only  one 
generation  of  this  insect  annually.  Although  the  clovers  have  appeared 


2.    Bu'l.  85,  pt.  Ill,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

—13 


370 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


to  be  the  most  common  food  plants  for  this  insect,  alfalfa  also  seems  to 
be  a  common  food  plant  for  both  the  larvae  and  adults,  and  the  fact  that 
alfalfa  is  usually  grown  continuously  on  the  same  land  for  a  number  of 
years  will  probably  make  it  very  favorable  for  this  pest  to  increase  in 
numbers. 

Methods  of  Control. 

The  following  paragraphs  relating  to  the  methods  of  control  are  quoted 
from  F.  M.  Webster  :* 

"BIRD  ENEMIES.  The  Biological  Survey,  in  its  work  on  the  food  habits 
of  birds,  has  found  that  the  following  birds  feed  upon  the  adults  of  this 
beetle:  Upland  plover,  killdeer  or  killdee,  ruffed  grouse,  broad-winged 
hawk,  flicker,  nighthawk,  chimney  swift,  wood  pewee,  crow,  blackbird, 

meadowlark,  Lincoln  finch,  song 
sparrow,  chipping  sparrow,  and 
the  white-throated  sparrow. 

"Of  these  birds  the  chimney 
swift  and  song  sparrow  were 
found  to  be  the  greatest  feeders 
on  the  insect,  as  many  as  fifteen 
adult  beetles  being  found  in  the 
stomach  of  one  chimney  swift, 
while  but  few  less  were  found  in 
stomachs  of  song  sparrows. 

"REMEDIAL  AND  PREVENTIVE 
MEASURES.  Undoubtedly  a  short 
rotation  of  the  alfalfa  crop  will 
have  a  tendency  to  limit  the 
abundance  of  the  pest  in  the  fields. 
Of  course  this  will  not  in  any 
way  affect  the  continuous  breed- 
ing of  the  insect  in  waste  lands 
where  clover  or  alfalfa  occur  un- 
interruptedly. 

"The  limited  amount  of  food 
consumed  by  the  adults  would 
of  itself  place  the  application 
of  poisons  out  of  practical  con- 
sideration. While  the  burning 

over  of  fields  in  winter  when  the  ground  is  frozen  might  destroy  some 
of  the  hibernating  adults,  in  many  cases  they  would  probably  be  so 
near  the  soil,  or  so  intermingled  with  the  surface  soil,  as  to  escape 
the  effects  of  the  burning,  and  especially  would  this  be  true  if  they  were 
further  protected  by  a  covering  of  matted  green  grass. 

"Therefore,  at  the  present  time  the  only  practical  suggestion  that  can 
be  made  is  the  disking  or  harrowing  of  the  fields  as  soon  as  the  first  crop 
is  removed.  We  know  that  the  larvae,  as  a  rule,  do  not  descend  much 
more  than  an  inch  below  the  surface.  If,  therefore,  the  surface  of  the 


FIG.  315.  Clover-root  curculio.  a,  Red 
clover  root  showing  effects  of  attack  by 
larvaj;  b,  Red  clover  leaf  showing  work  of 
adult  beetles;  about  natural  size.  (After 
Wildermuth,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


3.    Farmers'  Bulletin  649,  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


371 


ground  were  disked  and  then  harrowed  it  would  seem  as  though  the 
pupal  cells  would  be  broken  up,  and  as  the  pest  is  helpless  in  this  stage, 
vast  numbers  would  be  destroyed  in  this  way.  While,  as  stated,  there  has 
not  been  sufficient  time  to  carry  out  any  exact  experiments  in  this  direc- 
tion, it  would  be  well  for  the  farmers,  until  some  better  methods  have 
been  devised,  to  take  the  precaution  of  disking  and  harrowing  immedi- 
ately after  removing  the  first  hay  crop  in  order  to  destroy  as  many  as 
possible  of  the  insects  in  their  development.  This,  of  course,  can  not  be 
done  early  enough  in  the  season  to  prevent  injury,  but  it  will  in  all 
probability  reduce  largely  the  abundance  of  the  pest  the  following 
season." 


Fir..  316.  Clover  Sitones  (Sitones 
flnrescen*).  Adult;  ten  times  natural 
size.  (After  Folsom,  111.  Exper.  Sta.) 


FIG.  317.  Leaves  of  white  clover 
showing  characteristic  injury  by 
adult  beetles  of  Sitones  flavescens; 
natural  size.  (After  Folsom,  111. 
Exp.  Sta.) 


CLOVER  SITONES. 

(Sitones  flavescens  All.) 

The  adult,  a  small,  dark-brown  or  rusty-brown,  hard-bodied  beetle,  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  Found  eating  out  U-shaped  patches  from 
the  margin  of  the  leaves  of  alfalfa  and  clover.  (Fig.  316.)  The  larva,  a 
yellowish-white,  footless,  maggot-like  grub,  with  a  small  yellowish- 
brown  head,  and  when  full  grown  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
Found  feeding  at  the  crown  or  at  the  roots  of  clover  and  alfalfa. 

History  and  Distribution. 

Everything  indicates  that  this  insect  came  from  Europe,  where  it  is 
known  to  work  on  clover  and  alfalfa.  It  is  now  not  only  abundant  in 
the  Atlantic  states,  but  is  also  distributed  in  many  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  valley  states. 


372  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

These  insects  pass  the  winter  chiefly  as  young  larvae  in  earthen  cells 
in  the  clover  or  alfalfa  sod.  Occasionally  a  few  of  the  beetles  may 
hibernate  and  survive  the  winter,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  hibernat- 
ing beetles  lay  any  eggs  in  the  spring.  About  the  first  of  June  the 
wintering  larvae,  which  have  been  working  on  the  roots  of  clover  and 
alfalfa,  begin  to  pass  into  the  pupal  stage,  and  from  the  middle  of  June 
on  through  July,  August  and  September  the  beetles  are  common  in  the 
field,  where  they  may  be  found  cutting  out  the  U-shaped  patches  from 
the  margin  of  the  leaves.  (Fig.  317.)  The  female  beetles  probably  lay 
most  of  their  eggs  in  September.  The  eggs  are  yellowish-white  at  first, 
turning  greenish,  and  becoming  black  in  two  or  three  days.  The  young 
larvae  work  at  the  bases  of  the  stems  or  the  bases  of  the  roots.  Most  of 
the  injury  is  done  by  the  larvae  working  on  the  roots.  Some  of  them 
may  bite  out  the  roots  at  the  crown,  causing  the  plant  to  wilt.  By  late 
fall  they  are  from  a  third  to  half  grown,  and  then  enter  the  sod  to 
hibernate  in  earthen  cells.  There  is  only  one  generation  each  year. 

Methods  of  Control. 

The  cutting  of  the  hay  crop  has  little  or  no  effect  in  controlling  this 
insect.  The  larvae  continue  to  feed  on  the  roots,  and  the  beetles  on  the 
leaves  as  soon  as  they  appear. 

Probably  the  most  effective  method  of  control  would  be  late  fall  and 
early  spring  disking  of  the  alfalfa.  This  will  not  only  break  open  many 
of  the  earthen  cells  and  expose  the  larvae  to  the  weather,  but  it  will  also 
crush  many  of  them. 

WHITE  GRUBS. 

(Lachnosterna  sp.) 

Thick,  fleshy,  white  grubs,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long  when  full 
grown;  dark-brown  head  and  mouth  parts;  three  pairs  of  legs,  curved 
body,  heaviest  at  rear  end;  devouring  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa  plants 
and  causing  dead  patches  in  the  field. 

Life  History. 

The  parent  of  the  white  grub  is  the  common  blundering  May  beetle  or 
June  bug  that  flies  about  lights  at  night  and  lands  against  the  screens 
with  a  thump,  or  if  it  succeeds  in  entering,  flies  about  the  room  with  a 
loud  buzz  and  strikes  the  walls  and  ceiling  with  a  thump.  The  beetles 
emerge  from  the  wintering  pupae  in  the  soil  in  May  and  June  and  the 
females  deposit  their  eggs  in  grass  lands,  meadows,  alfalfa  and  clover 
fields.  The  grubs  hatching  from  these  eggs  live  in  soil  almost  three 
years  before  reaching  maturity,  and  thus  the  adult  beetle  rarely  emerges 
until  three  years  after  the  egg  from  which  it  develops  was  deposited. 
(Fig.  318.)  However,  different  individuals  complete  growth  each  year, 
and  thus  the  June  bug  is  common  every  year.  The  grubs  consume  the 
roots  of  the  alfalfa  plants,  thereby  depriving  the  plant  of  a  part  of  the 
normal  food  supply,  checking  its  growth,  and  many  times  completely 
killing  it. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


373 


Methods  of  Control. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES.  The  white  grubs  fall  prey  to  birds  whenever  they 
are  exposed.  Large  numbers  of  the  grubs  and  adult  beetles  are  consumed 
by  skunks.  Many  of  the  grubs  are  devoured  by  moles.  A  small  per- 
centage of  the  grubs  are  killed  by  parasitic  fungi.  Sometimes  a  large 
per  cent  of  the  grubs  are  destroyed  by  parasitic  insects,  chief  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  a  small  wasp-like  insect  (Tephia  inornata 
Say.). 

ROTATION.  Allowing  the  land  to  remain  in  alfalfa  year  after  year  is 
conducive  to  the  increase  of  the  grubs.  If  the  grubs  have  become  well 
established  in  the  alfalfa  there  is  no  practical  method  of  control,  except 
rotation.  A  badly  infested  field  should  be  thoroughly  pastured  with 


FIG.  318.     White  grub   (Lachnosterna  negosa).     Adult  beetle  and  larva; 
natural  size.      (After  Forbes.) 


times 


hogs  during  the  summer,  allowing  them  to  root  it  over.  In  the  fall  or  in 
the  early  spring  it  should  be  plowed  deep  and  thoroughly  harrowed. 
This  will  not  only  kill  large  numbers  of  the  pupae  by  breaking  open  the 
pupal  cells  and  exposing  them  to  the  weather,  but  it  will  also  expose 
the  grub  to  birds  and  other  enemies.  Chickens  and  turkeys  following 
the  plow  will  catch  a  large  number  of  grubs. 

In  pasturing  alfalfa  with  hogs  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  giant 
thorn-headed  worm,  one  of  the  serious  intestinal  parasites  of  the  hog, 
infests  the  white  grub.  Inasmuch  as  the  grubs  must  obtain  this  para- 
site from  infested  hog  feces,  and  since  the  life  of  the  grub  is  three  years. 
it  is  plain  that  hogs  may  be  safely  used  to  clean  the  land  if  it  has  not 
been  pastured  with  hogs  at  any  time  in  the  previous  three  years. 


374 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


GRASSHOPPERS. 

(AcrididsB.) 

While  there  are  many  species  of  grasshoppers  in  Kansas,  only  three 
species — the  differential  grasshopper  (Melanoplus  differentialis  Thos.), 
the  two-striped  grasshopper  (Melanoplus  bivittatus  Say.),  and  the  lesser 
migratory  grasshopper  (Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley) — appear  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  do  serious  harm  to  alfalfa. 

Description. 

The  differential  grasshopper  has  a  large,  yellow,  robust  body,  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  long,  which  is  marked  by  black  lines  on  the  sides. 
(Fig.  319.)  A  row  of  black  V's  is  on  the  outside  of  the  hind  thighs, 


FIG.  319.  Differential  grasshopper 
(Melanoplus  differentialis).  Adult  fe- 
male; %  natural  size.  (Original.) 


FIG.  320.  Two-striped  grasshopper 
(Melanoplus  bivittatus).  Adult  female; 
%  natural  size.  (Original.) 


FIG.  321.  Lesser  migratory  grass- 
hopper (Melanoplus  atlanis).  Adult 
female;  natural  size.  (Original.) 

with  a  row  of  black  dots  just  below.  This  species,  which  is  the  most 
common  in  alfalfa,  is  present  on  both  lowland  and  upland  in  all  parts 
of  the  state. 

The  two-striped  grasshopper  has  a  brownish-yellow  body  about  one 
and  one-half  inches  in  length,  with  a  distinct  yellow  stripe  extending  on 
each  side  from  the  upper  part  of  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  wing.  (Fig. 
320.)  This  species  is  also  found  in  all  parts  of  the  state  associated  with 
the  differential  grasshopper,  but  usually  is  present  in  lesser  numbers. 

The  lesser  migratory  grasshopper  is  the  smallest  of  the  species  in- 
juring alfalfa.  It  has  a  slender  body  about  one  inch  in  length  and  varies 
in  color  from  yellow  to  dark  brown.  The  narrow  front  wings  have 
longitudinal  V-shaped  areas  extending  through  the  middle,  in  which  are 
found  a  number  of  squarish  black  spots.  (Fig.  321.) 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  female  grasshoppers  begin  to  deposit  their  eggs  about  the  first  of 
September  and  continue  until  cold  weather.  They  prefer  a  moderate 
compact,  rather  damp,  but  not  wet,  soil  which  is  rarely  disturbed  by  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


375 


plow  or  other  cultivating  implements,  undisked  alfalfa  fields  thus  con- 
stituting an  ideal  breeding  place.  Roadsides,  fence  rows,  waste  places, 
and  edges  of  pastures  also  constitute  ideal  breeding  places.  The  female 
digs  a  hole  in  the  ground  with  the  tip  of  her  abdomen,  extending  it  as 
far  down  as  the  abdomen  will  reach  (Fig.  322)  and  deposits  from  fifty 


FIG.  322.  Drawing  representing  the  position  assumed  by  the  female  differential 
grasshopper  in  laying  her  eggs ;  slightly  enlarged.  (After  Milliken,  Kan.  Exp.  Sta. ; 
Emslie,  Del.) 

to  one  hundred  eggs,  neatly  arranged  in  a  kidney-shaped  pod  or  mass. 
She  then  packs  the  earth  in  over  them,  and  here  they  remain  throughout 
the  winter.  With  the  coming  of  warm  spring  weather  they  hatch  and 
the  young  come  to  the  surface,  where  they  feed  on  the  alfalfa  all  summer 
long.  They  reach  full  size  the  latter  part  of  summer,  mate,  and  lay  the 
eggs  that  are  to  produce  the  next  year's  brood. 

Methods  of  Control. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES.  Upward  of  one  hundred  species  of  birds  are 
known  to  feed  on  grasshoppers.  Some  of  the  most  useful  ones  in  this 
respect  are  quails,  prairie  chickens,  sparrow  hawks,  the  shrike,  all 
cuckoos,  the  meadow  lark,  catbird,  all  blackbirds,  and  the  cowbird. 
Barnyard  fowls,  such  as  guineas,  chickens,  ducks,  turkeys  and  geese, 
are  continually  in  search  of  grasshoppers.  Skunks,  toads,  ground  squir- 
rels and  snakes  are  very  fond  of  them. 

Mites  often  infest  grasshoppers,  collecting  in  large  numbers  under 
the  base  of  the  wings.  Probably  the  mites  do  not  kill  many  of  the  grass- 
hoppers. However,  they  may  so  weaken  the  female  as  to  prevent  her 
from  developing  her  eggs.  There  are  several  species  of  parasitic  flies 
that  frequently  destroy  very  large  numbers  of  the  grasshoppers;  in  fact, 
they  sometimes  destroy  nearly  all  of  them  over  large  districts.  These 
parasitic  flies  deposit  the  small  maggots  on  the  surface  of  the  bodies  of 


376 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


the  grasshoppers,  and  the  young,  on  hatching,  make  their  way  at  once 
into  the  bodies  of  the  grasshoppers.  Here  they  grow  and  develop  rapidly, 
feeding  upon  the  living  grasshoppers  and  causing  them  to  die.  When 
full  grown  the  maggot  enters  the  ground,  pupates  within  a  brown  case, 
and  within  a  short  time  the  pupse  transforms  to  a  fly,  about  the  size  of 
a  house  fly,  but  lighter  in  color.  (Fig.  323.) 

Another  class  of  insects  that  is  very  useful  in  checking  grasshoppers 
is  the  blister-beetle  family.  Unfortunately  the  adults  are  often  known 

to  us  as  very  injurious  to  alfalfa 
and  garden  crops.  The  female 
blister  beetle  deposits  from  400  to 
500  yellowish  eggs  in  irregular 
masses  in  the  loose  ground.  The 
eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the 
active  larvae  run  about  everywhere 
seeking  the  eggs  of  grasshoppers. 
Some  seasons  immense  numbers 
of  grasshoppers  die  of  a  fungous 
disease.  This  disease,  like  so  many 
of  the  fungous  diseases,  depends 
for  its  propagation  upon  favorable 
climatic  conditions.  If  there  are  sev- 
eral weeks  of  cloudy,  rainy  weather 
this  disease  may  become  very  pro- 
nounced and  sweep  the  grasshop- 
pers off  in  myriads.  The  diseased 

'hoppers,  just  before  dying,  crawl  upon  the  plants,  usually  crawling  well 
to  the  top  of  the  alfalfa,  weeds  and  grasses.  (Fig  324.)  They  turn  dark 
in  color  and  cling  very  closely  or  tightly  to  the  plant.  The  disease  has 
literally  rotted  them.  In  a  short  time  after  dying  they  dry  up,  crumple, 
and  fall  to  pieces.  Many  inquiries  are  made  as  to  whether  alfalfa  on 
which  many  of  the  diseased  grasshoppers  have  died  would  be  safe  to 
feed  stock.  The  writer  believes  there  is  no  danger  whatever  in  using 
this  hay.  In  so  far  as  we  know  it  is  not  a  poisonous  fungus.  The  cut- 
ting, curing,  raking  and  handling  of  the  hay,  which  is  necessary  before 
the  hay  is  placed  in  the  barn  or  stack,  will  dislodge  and  break  to  pieces 
the  dead  'hoppers  to  such  an  extent  that  very  little  of  them  will  be  left 
on  or  in  the  hay. 

PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  METHODS.  While  there  is  a  large  number 
of  natural  enemies  of  the  grasshoppers,  and  all  of  them  are  a  benefit  to 
the  farmer  in  helping  him  to  control  the  'hoppers,  they  do  not,  and  prob- 
ably never  will,  afford  absolute  protection  from  the  ravages  of  these 
pests  in  alfalfa  fields,  and  thus  preventive  and  remedial  measures  must 
be  put  in  operation  in  order  to  prevent  serious  injury  to  the  crop. 

Disking.  During  the  egg  stage  is  the  best  time  to  attack  the  grass- 
hoppers. The  eggs  may  be  destroyed  by  plowing,  harrowing,  disking  or 
cultivating  roadsides,  margins  of  cultivated  fields,  grassy  margins  along 
fences  and  all  waste  places,  in  the  fall  or  early  winter.  In  an  alfalfa  field 
it  is  not  necessary  to  cultivate  or  disk  deeply,  two  inches  being  sufficient. 


FIG.  323.  Parasitic  fly  (Sarcophaga 
georgina)  that  destroys  grasshoppers.  Much 
enlarged.  (After  Webster,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


377 


This  will  break  up  and  turn  out  a  large  portion  of  the  egg  packets,  so 
that  they  will  be  exposed  to  the  natural  enemies  and  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather.  The  farmer  must  use  his  judgment  as  to  the  best  implement 
to  use  for  this  purpose,  and  as  to  whether  the  soil  and  climate  are  such  as 
to  make  it  safe  to  use  the  alfalfa  cultivator  or  disk. 

Poisoned  Bran  Mash.  Where  the  eggs  have  been  left  undisturbed  and 
allowed  to  hatch  the  best  method  of  destroying  the  grasshopper,  whether 
young  or  old,  is  to  distribute  poisoned  bran  mash  prepared  and  distributed 
in  the  following  manner: 

Bran    20  Ibs. 

Paris  green 1  Ib. 

Syrup   2  qts. 

Oranges  or  lemons 3 

Water  3V2  gals. 


FIG.  324.     Photograph  taken  of  grasshoppers  dead  and  dying  from  fungous  disease; 
greatly  reduced.      (Original.) 

In  preparing  the  bran  mash  mix  the  bran  and  Paris  green  thoroughly 
in  a  washtub  while  dry.  Squeeze  the  juice  of  the  oranges  or  lemons  into 
the  water,  and  chop  the  remaining  pulp  and  the  peel  to  fine  bits  and  add 
them  to  the  water.  Dissolve  the  syrup  in  the  water  and  wet  the  bran  and 
poison  with  the  mixture,  stirring  at  the  same  time  so  as  to  dampen  the 
mash  thoroughly. 

The  bait  when  flavored  with  oranges  or  lemons  is  not  only  more  at- 
tractive, but  also  seems  to  be  more  appetizing,  and  thus  is  eaten  by  more 
of  the  grasshoppers. 

The  damp  mash  or  bait  should  be  sown  broadcast  in  the  infested  areas 
early  in  the  morning,  or  about  the  time  the  grasshoppers  are  beginning  to 
move  about  from  their  night's  rest.  It  should  be  scattered  in  such  a  man- 


378 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


ner  as  to  cover  from  four  to  five  acres  with  the  amount  of  bait  made  by 
using  the  quantities  of  ingredients  given  in  the  above  formula.  Since 
very  little  of  the  bran  mash  is  eaten  after  it  becomes  dry,  scattering  it 
broadcast  in  the  morning,  and  very  thinly,  places  it  where  the  largest 
number  will  find  it  in  the  shortest  time.  Sowing  it  in  this  manner  also 
makes  it  impossible  for  birds,  barnyard  fowls,  or  live  stock  to  secure  a 
sufficient  amount  of  the  poison  to  kill  them. 

Where  the  alfalfa  has  just  been  cut  the  poisoned  bait  may  be  sown 
broadcast  in  strips  about  one  rod  apart  over  the  area  to  be  treated.  In 
case  a  second  application  is  made,  sow  the  strip  opposite  to  those  of  the 
first  sowing.  If  the  grasshoppers  are  moving  into  the  alfalfa  from  the 
surrounding  fields,  roadsides,  or  pastures,  which  they  often  do  in  the 
case  of  new  alfalfa,  simply  sow  a  strip  of  the  bran  mash  along  the  edge 
of  the  field  into  which  they  are  moving.  Inasmuch  as  the  grasshoppers 
may  continue  to  come  from  the  surrounding  fields,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
make  a  second  and  even  a  third  application  of  the  bait  at  intervals  of 
from  three  to  four  days. 

Hopperdozer.  Coal  oil  h?  been  used  in  many  ways  for  the  destruction 
of  grasshoppers,  but  is  most  commonly  used  in  the  hopperdozer,  a  device 


FIG.  325.     Drawing  showing  the  construction  of  a  hopperdozer  sixteen  feet  long. 
(After  Milliken,  Kan.  Exp.   Sta.). 

wnich  consists  of  a  long,  shallow,  galvanized-iron  pan,  mounted  on  very 
low  runners.  The  hopperdozer  is  very  effective  where  it  can  be  drawn 
over  an  infested  area  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  a  necessary 
device  wherever  grasshoppers  become  destructive.  On  infested  bare  areas 
or  fields  where  it  does  not  injure  the  crop,  grasshopper  damage  can  be 
quickly  checked  by  its  use.  It  can  be  used  without  injury  in  an  alfalfa 
field  for  two  or  three  weeks  after  a  crop  has  been  cut.  A  good  kind  of  a 
hopperdozer  is  made  after  the  following  plan:  The  pan  is  made  from  a 
piece  of  galvanized  sheet  iron,  2,Vz  feet  wide  and  16  feet  long,  by  turning 
up  about  4  inches  of  the  edge  all  around  and  soldering  partitions  across 
it  at  intervals  of  about  2  feet.  The  sled  is  made  of  inch  boards  nailed  on 
2-  by  4-in.  runners,  with  a  3-foot  screen  made  by  fastening  oilcloth, 
smooth  side  forward,  on  upright  pieces  at  the  back.  (Fig  325.)  About 
an  inch  of  water  is  put  in  the  compartments  of  the  pan,  and  a  sufficient 
amount  of  oil  added  to  make  a  good  film  over  the  top.  Horses  hitched  at 
either  end  draw  the  dozer  over  the  infested  ground,  and  grasshoppers 
that  attempt  to  jump  back  over  it  strike  the  screen  and  fall  into  the 
water  and  oil.  Many  hop  out  again,  but  it  is  an  advantage,  as  they  die 
and  save  the  operator  the  trouble  of  later  removing  them.  The  dead 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  379 

that  accumulate  in  the  pan  must  be  removed  from  time  to  time  and  more 
oil  and  water  added.  On  smooth,  level  ground  old  wagon  tires  will  make 
good  runners,  and  let  the  pan  run  close  to  the  surface,  where  it  will  do 
the  most  effective  work. 

Where  large  areas  are  to  be  gone  over  with  the  dozer,  two  sleds 
should  be  constructed,  each  long  enough  to  hold  one  of  the  pans.  Place 
these  sleds  end  to  end  with  an  8  ft.  "2  by  4"  between  the  runners  of 
the  ends  that  come  together.  With  half -inch  bolts  fasten  the  two  run- 
ners loosely  together  through  the  middle  "2  by  4,"  leaving  the  latter 
projecting  behind  as  far  as  it  may.  Run  a  heavy  wire  through  a  hole  in 
the  rear  end  of  the  "2  by  4"  and  fasten  each  of  the  ends  to  the  outer 
back  corner  of  each  dozer.  This  gives  a  machine  about  32  feet  in  length 
that  is  flexible  in  the  middle,  so  that  it  may  be  drawn  over  rolling  land 
by  a  team  hitched  to  each  end.  The  hitch  should  be  to  the  end  of  a  10 
ft.  "2  by  4,"  which  extends  from  the  middle  runner  of  each  sled  and 
projects  at  its  outer  end.  This  makes  the  pull  in  front  of  the  pans,  and 
it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  upset  the  machine. 

Any  grade  of  kerosene  may  be  used  in  a  hopperdozer.  Since  some  of 
the  oil  is  removed  by  every  grasshopper  that  gets  into  it  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  add  fresh  quantities  at  intervals.  In  case  the  oil  and  water  is 
slopping  out,  which  it  will  do  on  rough  or  uneven  ground,  burlap  or 
gunny-sack  cloth  should  be  placed  in  the  pans. 

The  first  cost  of  the  hopperdozer,  made  according  to  the  above  di- 
rections, should  not  be  more  than  $8,  and  should  be  operated  at  a  cost 
not  to  exceed  20  cents  an  acre. 

Poultry  and  Young  Hogs.  In  many  cases  where  grasshoppers  have 
been  numerous,  poultry  and  hogs  have  been  very  effective  in  destroying 
them.  Not  only  are  instances  of  this  kind  often  reported  to  us,  but 
observations  and  experiments  show  that  where  barnyard  fowls  and 
young  hogs  can  be  let  run  on  an  infested  field  they  furnish  one  of  the 
surest  and  most  effective  means  of  destroying  the  grasshoppers.  Poultry 
and  hogs  are  fond  of  the  'hoppers  and  pursue  them  eagerly.  Except  in 
gardens,  poultry  can  be  used  almost  anywhere,  and  if  they  are  placed 
where  they  can  begin  on  the  young  'hoppers  as  soon  as  they  are  large 
enough  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  fowls,  a  small  flock  will  destroy 
all  that  can  be  found  on  a  surprisingly  large  area,  and  will  keep  their 
number  down  throughout  the  summer. 

Hogs  can  be  let  run  on  alfalfa,  weed  patches,  and  pasture  lands 
where  the  grasshoppers  are  numerous.  A  bunch  of  young  shoats  will 
protect  a  considerable  area. 

To  make  a  successful  fight  against  grasshoppers  too  much  emphasis 
can  not  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  beginning  promptly,  as  soon  as  the 
insects  are  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  threaten  the  crops,  and  con- 
tinuing it  vigorously  so  long  as  the  grasshoppers  are  present. 

ARMY  WORM. 

(Leucania  unipuncta  Haw.) 

Plump,  greenish-black  to  dark  gray  caterpillars;  when  full  grown  from 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  long,  having  three  stripes  along 
each  side — the  middle  one  dark  and  other  two  light — and  a  narrow 


380 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


broken  stripe  of  white  down  the  middle  of  their  backs;  usually  mi- 
grating in  enormous  numbers  from  adjoining  grass  lands  or  rye  fields 
and  doing  great  damage  in  a  very  short  time.  (Fig  326.) 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  army  worms  occur  throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  They  live  in  low,  rank  growth  of  grasses,  which 
form  their  normal  breeding  grounds.  They  also  breed  in  rye  that  has 
been  sown  early  for  fall  and  winter  pasture.  Sometimes,  owing  to  un- 


FIG.  326.  Army  worms  (Leucania  unipuneta)  at 
work  on  a  corn  plant;  about  %  natural  size.  (After 
Slingerland.) 

usually  favorable  conditions,  there  is  an  enormous  increase  in  numbers, 
and,  unable  to  find  food  in  their  usual  haunts,  they  assume  the  army 
habit  and  crawl  in  great  numbers  into  alfalfa  fields,  consuming  all  in 
their  path.  The  next  year  their  natural  enemies  usually  will  have 
them  under  control  again,  and  they  will  not  be  observed  as  injurious  for 
a  number  of  years,  though  the  adult  moths  are  always  fairly  common. 
The  army  worms  pass  the  winter  as  partly  grown  larvae  in  the  soil. 
Probably  in  some  instances  the  adult  moths  pass  the  winter.  With  the 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


381 


coming  of  spring  the  worms  resume  their  feeding,  and,  attaining  full 
growth,  pupate  in  the  soil.  (Fig.  327.)  The  moths  emerging  from  these 
pupae  lay  their  eggs  during  May  behind  the  sheaths  of  the  grass,  fasten- 
ing them  to  the  leaf  by  means  of  a  gummy  cement.  (Fig.  328.)  The 
worms  hatching  from  these  eggs  reach  maturity  within  a  few  weeks, 
pupate,  and  transform  into  the  second  brood  of  moths  in  the  latter  part 
of  June.  A  third  brood  of  moths  appears  in  August  and  September. 
This  brood  lays  the  eggs  from  which  the  larvae  that,  after  becoming 
partly  grown,  pass  the  winter  in  the  soil. 


Fia.  327.  Army  worm.  Larvse,  pupae  and  moths; 
about  %  natural  size.  Eggs  greatly  enlarged.  (After 
Forbes.) 

Methods  of  Control. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES.  Fortunately,  parasitic  and  predaceous  foes  at- 
tack the  army  worms  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  seldom  seriously 
abundant  in  the  same  locality  two  years  in  succession.  Large  numbers 
are  destroyed  by  predaceous  ground  beetles  and  their  larvae,  but  the 
most  deadly  enemies  attacking  them  are  the  tachina  flies.  (Fig.  329.) 
These  parasitic  flies  lay  a  dozen  or  more  eggs  on  the  worms,  usually 


382 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


along  the  back  close  to  the  head,  and  the  maggots  hatching  from  these 
eggs  enter  the  body  and  feed  on  the  tissues  and  blood  of  the  caterpillar, 
thus  soon  killing  it. 

REMEDIAL  MEASURES.    In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  army  worm  has  so 
many  foes,  it  occasionally  becomes  so  abundant  that  the  grower  must  use 

artificial  measures  of  control.  As 
soon  as  the  army  worms  are  detected 
measures  of  control  should  be  put 
into  operation  at  once,  if  the  loss  of 
the  crop  is  to  be  prevented,  for  they 
move  rapidly  and  destroy  all  in  their 
path.  Efforts  should  be  centered  on 
keeping  the  worms  out  of  the  al- 
falfa not  yet  attacked,  and  on  con- 
fining their  injury  to  as  small  an 
area  as  possible. 

The  most  effective  method  of  con- 
trol is  the  poisoned  bran  mash  pre- 
pared the  same  as  for  grasshoppers 
(see  "Poisoned  Bran  Mash,"  in  in- 
dex), and  distributed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: 

If  the  worms  are  moving  into  an 

alfalfa  field  a  strip  of  the  bran  mash  should  be  sown  broadcast  along  the 
edge  of  the  field  into  which  they  are  moving.  If  they  are  already  abundant 
in  the  field  the  crop  should  be  cut  at  once  and  the  worms  poisoned  as  they 
are  moving  into  an  adjoining  field.  If  they  are  working  on  alfalfa  that  is 


FiG.  328.  Army-worm  moth,  pupa  and 
eggs  in  natural  position  in  a  grass  leaf; 
natural  size.  (After  Comstock.) 


FIG.  329.  The  farmers'  friend,  the  red-tailed  tachina  fly  (Winthemia  quadri- 
postulata),  a,  natural  size;  &,  much  enlarged;  c,  army  worm  on  which  fly  has 
laid  eggs,  natural  size;  d,  much  enlarged.  (After  Slingerland.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


383 


just  starting  up  after  it  has  been  cut,  the  poisoned  bait  should  be  sown 
broadcast  over  the  infested  field  in  such  a  manner  that  the  amount  recom- 
mended in  the  formula  will  cover  about  three  acres.  The  worms  do  not  eat 
the  poisoned  mash  so  readily  when  it  is  dry,  and  for  this  reason  it  should 
be  scattered  on  the  infested  areas  in  the  evening,  because  the  worms  work 
mostly  at  night.  If  they  are  working  on  the  alfalfa  in  the  daytime,  which 
they  will  do  on  cloudy  days,  place  it  out  in  the  morning  or  during  the  day 
just  as  they  are  beginning  to  feed. 

As  a  barrier  to  their  progress  there  is  nothing  better  than  a  dust 
furrow,  made  the  same  as  the  one  for  the  chinch  bug.  If  the  weather  is 
cool  and  a  fine  dust  can  not  be  maintained  it  may  be  necessary  to  have 
two  or  three  furrows.  Pestholes  are  made  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows 
at  intervals  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  where  the  caterpillars  may  collect 

in  quantity  as  they  travel  up  and  down 
the  furrows  seeking  to  escape.  Here 
they  may  be  readily  killed  by  pouring 
kerosene  upon  them  or  by  crushing 
them. 

By  a  thorough  spraying  of  the  vege- 
tation on  which  they  are  feeding  with 
an  arsenical  spray,  large  numbers  may 
be  killed.  If  they  are  just  moving  into 
a  cornfield  or  an  alfalfa  field,  a  strip 
should  be  thoroughly  sprayed  along  the 
edge  of  the  field  into  which  they  are 
moving.  In  making  the  sprays  either 
lead  arsenate  should  be  used  at  the  rate 
of  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water 
or  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  In  using  Paris 
green  two  pounds  of  stone  lime  should 
be  used  to  every  pound  of  Paris  green. 

To  make  a  successful  fight  against  these  worms  too  much  emphasis 
can  not  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  beginning  promptly.  By  a  few 
hour's  delay  acres  of  alfalfa  and  other  crops  may  be  sacrificed. 

FALL  ARMY  WORM. 

(Laphygma  frugiperda  S.  and  A.) 

Caterpillars  much  like  the  true  army  worm  but  distinguished  by  being 
slightly  more  hairy,  having  four  prominent  black  tubercles  or  spots 
on  each  segment,  and  by  the  presence  of  a  white  inverted  V  on  the 
'forehead.  (Fig.  330.) 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  fall  army  worms  pass  the  winter  in  the  pupal  stage.  The  pupae 
are  shining  light  brown,  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are 
found  in  cells  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  moths  emerge  in  the  spring  and  lay  their  eggs  in 
clusters  of  fifty  or  more  on  grasses.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  ten  days, 


FIG.  330.  Fall  army  worm  (La- 
phygma frugiperda).  a,  Moth;  &,  fore 
wing ;  c,  larva  extended ;  d,  abdominal 
segment  of  larva,  side  view;  e,-  pupa. 
A.11  about  natural  size.  (After  Chittcn- 
den,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


384 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


and  the  first  brood  of  caterpillars  are  found  during  May  and  June.  These 
worms,  when  full  grown,  descend  an  inch  or  two  into  the  ground  and 
pass  into  the  pupal  stage.  A  little  later  the  moths  emerge  and  lay  the 
eggs  for  the  second  generation  of  worms.  It  is  this  second  brood  that 
often  becomes  so  injurious  on  alfalfa  during  the  latter  part  of  August 
and  the  first  week  or  two  in  September.  By  the  last  of  September  the 
third  generation  of  moths  will  appear  to  lay  the  eggs  for  the  third 
generation  of  worms.  This  is  the  brood  that  passes  the  winter  in  the 
soil  as  pupae. 

Methods  of  Control. 

The  habit  of  this  insect  of  entering  the  ground  to  pupate  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  control  of  it.  Shallow  cultivation  of  the  alfalfa  with  a 
spiked-tooth  harrow,  alfalfa  cultivator  or  disk  will  destroy  from  60  to 
90  per  cent  of  them,  depending  upon  the  thoroughness  of  the  work.  When 
alfalfa  fields  are  threatened  with  an  invasion,  or  if  they  have  become 
established  in  the  field,  the  same  treatment  that  is  recommended  for  the 
army  worm  should  be  used. 

VARIEGATED    CUTWORM. 

(Peridroma  saucia  Hubn.) 

Plump  caterpillar,  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches  long  when  full 
grown;  color  variable  from  a  brownish  or  grayish  to  a  greenish  hue, 
marked  with  longitudinal  dashes  along  the  sides  and  with  a  row  of  four 
or  six  pale  dots  extending  from  the  neck  half  way  or  more  down  the 
back.  (Fig.  331.) 


FIG.  331.  Variegated  cutworm  (Peridroma  saucia).  a,  adult;  b,  c,  d,  full-grown 
larvae;  e,  f,  egge.  All  natural  size  except  e,  which  is  greatly  enlarged.  (After 
Howard,  U.  8.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  £85 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

This  insect  breeds  abundantly,  not  only  in  alfalfa  and  wheat  fields, 
but  also  in  garden  crops,  and  when  abundant  it  sometimes  migrates  in 
hordes,  like  the  army  worm,  in  search  of  food,  and  has  been  known  to 
destroy  hundreds  of  acres  of  alfalfa.  The  life  history  of  this  species 
is  not  well  known.  It  may  be  taken  in  the  winter  as  larva,  pupa,  and 
even  as  adult,  but  in  Kansas  the  great  majority  pass  the  winter  as 
larvae  in  the  soil,  emerging  from  their  winter  quarters  in  the  late  spring. 
The  second  generation  of  worms  appears  in  July  and  August.  There 
may  be  even  a  partial  third  generation  in  the  fall,  but  there  is  nothing 
conclusive  upon  this  point.  The  variegated  cutworm  is  a  wide  feeder, 
working  not  only  on  field,  garden  and  greenhouse  plants,  but  also  on  the 
fciiage  and  fruit  of  trees.  In  the  spring  of  1909  the  infestation  of  this 
insect,  which  was  more  serious  than  usual,  extended  over  several  coun- 
ties in  the  south  central  part  of  the  state.  At  that  time  they  appeared 
early  in  the  spring  and  destroyed  thousands  of  acres  of  wheat  and 
many  acres  of  alfalfa.  In  the  spring  and  early  summer  of  1915  the  in- 
festation was  a  much  wider  one,  extending  over  the  eastern  third  of 
the  state.  Instead  of  injuring  crops  early  in  the  season  and  confining 
their  attack  almost  entirely  to  wheat,  as  they  did  in  1909,  they  appeared 
almost  sixty  days  later,  or  about  the  first  of  June,  and  the  main  injury 
was  confined  to  the  alfalfa,  although  in  a  few  cases,  after  alfalfa  had 
been  cut,  they  migrated  into  garden  truck  and  corn. 

Methods  of  Control. 

This  insect,  like  the  army  worm,  has  many  parasitic  and  predaceous 
foes,  the  principal  ones  being  the  same  parasitic  flies  that  parasitize  the 
army  worms. 

The  same  poisoned  bran  mash  that  has  proved  so  effective  for  the  con- 
trol of  grasshoppers  and  army  worms  is  also  very  effective  in  destroying 
the  variegated  cutworms.  (See  "Poisoned  Bran  Mash,"  in  index.)  In 
the  evening  the  bran  mash  is  sown  broadcast  over  the  infested  fields  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  amount  of  bait  prepared  by  beginning  with 
twenty  pounds  of  bran  will  cover  about  five  acres.  If  they  appear  late 
in  the  season,  as  they  did  in  1915,  they  probably  will  not  be  noticed  until 
the  first  crop  of  alfalfa  has  been  cut.  Within  two  or  three  days  the 
farmer  will  notice  .hat  the  alfalfa  is  not  growing  and  that  the  ground 
is  almost  as  bare  as  the  day  it  was  cut,  although  the  season  may  be  very 
favorable  for  a  rapid  second  growth.  If  he  will  examine  the  field  he 
will  discover  that  the  worms  are  eating  the  new  growth  of  alfalfa  just  as 
soon  as  it  appears.  The  worms  may  not  get  enough  entirely  to  satisfy 
their  hunger  during  the  night,  but  will  get  enough  to  eat  to  keep  them 
from  migrating,  and  with  the  advent  of  day  they  enter  the  ground  to 
wait  for  the  next  night's  meal.  This  makes  conditions  ideal  for  poisoning 
them,  and  in  the  evening  the  bran  mash  flavored  with  lemons  or  oranges 
should  be  sown  over  the  infested  portions.  One  application  usually  will 
be  sufficient. 


386 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


GARDEN   WEBWORM. 

(Loxostege  similalis  Gn.) 

Small,  green,  black-dotted  web-spinning  caterpillars,  appearing  in  June, 
July  and  August,  and  binding  up  the  alfalfa  plants  with  webs. 

Distribution. 

Although  this  insect  occurs  throughout  the  United  States,  it  is  most 
serious  in  the  central  Mississippi  states.  Several  times  it  has  proven  a 
serious  enemy  to  alfalfa  in  this  state.  The  larvae  feed  normally  on  the 
pigweed  or  careless  weed,  from  which  they  sometimes  receive  the  local 
name  "careless  worm."  Usually  it  is  only  when  they  become  abundant  on 
the  weeds  that  they  migrate  from  them  to  attack  crops,  such  as  alfalfa, 
corn  and  garden  truck. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  moth  is  yellowish,  buff,  or  grayish-brown  in  color,  with  a  wing 
expanse  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The  eggs,  which  are  laid  on 

the  food  plants,  soon  hatch,  and  the 
tiny  worms  begin  feeding.  In  feed- 
ing the  worms  spin  a  fine  web,  which 
gradually  envelops  the  plant,  of 
which  nothing  is  left  but  the  skeleton 
of  the  leaves  when  the  worms  are 
abundant.  The  worms  vary  in  color 
from  pale  and  greenish-yellow  to 
dark  yellow,  and  are  marked  with 
numerous  black  dots.  (Fig.  332.) 
The  worms  become  full  grown  in 
about  three  weeks  in  summer,  when 
they  descend  to  the  ground  and 
pupate  in  small  silken  cells  on  or 
just  below  the  surface.  The  moths 

emerge  in  about  one  week,  so  that  In  midsummer  the  complete  life  cycle 
occupies  about  one  month.  In  Kansas  there  are  three  or  four  genera- 
tions a  year,  the  last  generation  passing  the  winter  either  as  larvae  or 
pupae  in  silken-lined  cocoons  in  the  soil. 

Methods  of  Control. 

Usually  the  farmer  does  not  notice  the  trouble  until  the  plants  are 
covered  with  webs  and  are  seriously  injured.  Just  as  soon  as  the  worms 
are  noticed  the  alfalfa  should  be  cut  in  order  to  save  as  much  of  it  as  pos- 
sible for  hay.  If  it  is  full  of  the  web  and  the  droppings  of  the  worms  it 
should  not  be  fed  to  horses,  but  may  be  fed  to  cattle.  In  raking  and 
handling  the  hay  many  of  the  worms  will  be  killed,  while  others  will 
perish  in  the  hay. 

The  plowing  of  infested  weed  fields  in  late  fall  or  winter  and  thorough 
disking  of  alfalfa  will  be  found  largely  to  control  the  pest.  When  it 
appears  on  garden  crops  it  may  be  readily  destroyed  by  at  once  spraying 
or  dusting  with  Paris  green  or  lead  arsenate.  The  destruction  of  the 
weeds  upon  which  it  feeds  is  very  important  in  preventing  the  undue  in- 
crease of  the  pest. 


Fia.  332.  Garden  webworm  (Loxo- 
stege similalis).  a,  male  moth;  b,  c, 
larvae ;  d,  anal  segment  of  same ;  e,  ab- 
dominal segment  of  same  from  side;  /, 
pupa;  g,  tip  of  abdomen  of  same;  a,  b,  c, 
f,  somewhat  enlarged;  d,  e,  g,  more  en- 
larged. (After  Riley  and  Chittenden,  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


387 


THE   ALFALFA   CATERPILLAR. 

(Eurymus  eurytheme  Boisd.) 

Caterpillar,  dark  grass-green  color,  with  a  white  stripe  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  and  when  full-grown  about  one  inch  in  length.  (Fig.  333.)  The 
adult,  a  butterfly,  with  a  wing  expanse  of  nearly  two  inches,  varying  in 
color  'from  yellow  to  almost  white,  but  usually  sulphur-yellow  above, 
with  black  outer  wing  margins,  a  black  spot  in  the  center  of  each  fore 
wing  and  a  yellowish  spot  in  the  center  of  each  hind  wing.  (Figs. 
334  and  335. 


FIG. 


333.     Alfalfa    caterpillar    (Eurymus   eurytheme).      Full-grown    larva   or    caterpillar; 
about  three  times  natural  size.      (After  Wildermuth,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


FIG.  334.  Female  moth  or  adult  of  the  al- 
falfa caterpillar;  1%  times  natural  size. 
(After  Wildermuth,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


FIG.  335.  Male  moth  or  adult  of  the  al- 
falfa caterpillar;  1%  times  natural  size. 
(After  Wildermuth,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


Distribution. 

Although  this  insect  is  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States  and  southern  Canada,  it  is  much  more  abundant  in  the 
states  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  thus  covering  the  principal  alfalfa- 
growing  section  of  this  country.  However,  it  is  in  the  regions  where 
irrigation  is  extensively  carried  on  that  it  is  very  abundant  and  has 
proved  a  serious  pest. 

Habits  and  Life  History.         « 

The  life  history  of  this  insect  has  not  been  wprked  out  for  Kansas. 
However,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  butterflies  are  present  throughout 
the  spring  and  summer  months,  there  are  probably  three  generations  in 


388  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

one  year.  The  winter  is  probably  passed  in  the  pupal  stage,  the  pupae 
being  attached  to  the  stems  of  weeds,  grasses  and  other  plants  in  sheltered 
places.  During  the  summer  the  pupae  may  be  found  hanging  head  up- 
ward, attached  to  the  alfalfa  stems.  It  is  the  caterpillar,  or  worm,  that 
does  the  damage  and  not  the  butterfly  that  is  so  frequently  seen  flying 
over  alfalfa  fields. 

Methods  of  Control. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES.  In  speaking  of  the  natural  enemies  Mr.  Wilder- 
muth4  says :  "Were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  this  species  is  preyed  upon  by 
a  great  many  natural  enemies  it  would  indeed  prove  a  much  more  serious 
pest  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Parasites  and  predaceous  insects, 
fungous  and  bacterial  diseases,  birds,  toads,  and  even  domestic  fowls,  all 
play  a  large  part  toward  keeping  the  species  well  within  bounds  during 
certain  seasons  of  the  year." 

CONTROL  MEASURES.  The  following  conclusions  regarding  control 
measures  are  quoted  from  Mr.  Wildermuth:5 

"Keep  the  soil  in  the  best  possible  cultural  condition.  Irrigate  it 
often  and  thoroughly  and  as  soon  after  cutting  as  the  crop  of  hay  can  be 
removed  from  the  ground. 

"Renovate,  either  by  disking  or  by  the  use  of  an  alfalfa  renovator, 
thus  disturbing  any  pupae  that  may  be  present,  and  putting  the  land  and 
alfalfa  in  condition  for  good  growth  of  succeeding  crops.  • 

"Cut  the  alfalfa  close  to  the  ground  and  clean,  especially,  along  the  ditch 
banks,  borders,  and  turning  rows,  as  well  as  in  the  main  part  of  the  field. 

"Cut  the  alfalfa  earlier  than  is  the  general  rule.  The  proper  time  is 
when  it  is  jtfst  coming  in  bloom  or  is  one-tenth  in  bloom.  Watch  for 
caterpillars  in  the  early  spring  crop,  and  if  many  are  observed  about 
grown,  cut  the  hay  a  few  days  before  it  is  in  bloom,  and  thus  save  the 
next  and  future  crops. 

"A  minimum  amount  of  damage  occurs  in  fields  that  are  systematically 
pastured  all  or  a  part  of  the  time. 

"A  field  should  never  be  abandoned  because  the  caterpillars  threaten 
the  destruction  of  a  crop  of  alfalfa  before  the  hay  can  possibly  mature. 
Mow  it  at  once,  cutting  it  low  and  clean,  thus  saving  part  of  the  present 
crop,  and  in  so  doing  starve,  and  allow  the  heat  of  the  sun  to  kill,  a  great 
many  of  this  generation  of  worms.  Follow  this  by  disking,  and  then  by 
either  rolling  or  brush  dragging,  and  a  great  majority  of  any  remaining 
larvae  will  be  killed.  The  ground  should  then  be  thoroughly  irrigated, 
and  by  these  efforts  the  coming  crop  will  be  assured. 

"Turkeys  and  chickens  when  allowed  the  run  of  a  field  will  keep  the 
numbers  of  the  caterpillars  at  a  minimum. 

"The  protection  of  toads  should  be  encouraged,  as  they  eat  many  of 
these  insects,  as  well  as  other  injurious  forms. 

"It  has  been  noted  that  a  carrying  out  of  only  part  of  these  recom- 
mendations will  not  at  all  times  save  one's  crop.  The  best  results  come 
to  the  one  who  is  thorough  in  methods. 

4.  Bui.  124,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  p.  19. 

5.  Bui.  124,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  pp.  39,  40. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


389 


"Cooperation  among  all  farmers  is  necessary  to  suppress  an  insect 
attack  completely.  An  occasional  outbreak  has  been  known  to  occur  upon 
a  farm  or  ranch  that  is  under  the  best  possible  condition  of  crop  culture, 
but  in  each  case  it  was  noted  that  the  careless  methods  of  a  neighbor 
were  responsible  for  the  reinfestation." 

THE  ALFALFA  WEEVIL. 

(Phytonomus  murinus  Fab.) 

A  small,  oval,  dark  brown  snout  beetle  marked  with  black  and  gray  hairs, 
giving  them  a  mottled  appearance;  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
long;  attacking  alfalfa  in  Utah,  the  adults  feeding  on  the  stems, 
leaves  and  buds  for  several  weeks.  The  Iarva3  are  small,  footless,  al- 
falfa-green worms  with  a  black  head,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  feed  in  the  stalk,  in  the  leaf  buds  and  on  the  leaves.  They 
have  the  habit  of  feeding  and  resting  in  a  curved  position.  (Fig.  336.) 


FIG.  336.     Alfalfa  weevil   (Phytonomus  murinus).     a,  eggs;  b,  cocoon;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa; 
e,  adult.     All  much  enlarged.     (After  Webster,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

At  the  present  time  we  do  not  know  of  an  infestation  of  this  serious 
pest  in  Kansas,  but  inasmuch  as  there  are  millions  of  the  beetles  in  the 
infested  district  of  Utah,  and  since  the  beetles  have  been  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  freight  and  passenger  cars  coming  from  the  in- 
fested regions  of  Utah,  and  since  these  freight  and  passenger  cars  are 
constantly  traversing  the  alfalfa  districts  of  Kansas,  it  is  probably  only 
a  question  of  a  short  time  until  the  weevil  will  be  distributed  in  the 
alfalfa  fields  of  Kansas.  It  is  therefore  highly  important  that  our  al- 
falfa growers  be  on  guard,  and  just  as  soon  as  this  insect  is  discovered, 
or  has  gained  a  foothold,  the  entomologists  of  the  Kansas  State  Experi- 
ment Station  should  be  notified  in  order  that  measures  for  its  control 
and  destruction  may  be  put  in  operation  at  once. 

History  and  Distribution. 

The  alfalfa  weevil  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Western  Asia  and  Northern 
Africa.  It  was  first  noticed  in  America  in  an  alfalfa  field  near  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah,  in  1904.  However,  it  was  not  brought  to  the  attention 


390 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


of  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  until  1907.  It  has  been  increasing  and 
spreading  until  now  it  has  spread  not  only  over  several  counties  in  North- 
ern Utah,  but  has  extended  its  area  of  diffusion  northeastward  into 
Wyoming  and  northward  into  Idaho. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  insect  passes  the  winter  as  an  adult  beetle  hibernating  in  the 
crowns  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  under  thick  grass,  weeds,  rubbish  and  leaves ; 
in  hay  or  straw  stacks,  in  barns  where  hay  is  stored,  or  in  any  well- 
sheltered  place  available  at  the  time  they  are  going  into  hibernation. 
In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  alfalfa  is  started  sufficiently  to  furnish 
food,  the  beetles  emerge  and  attack  the  young  plants.  About  April  the 
females  begin  laying  their  eggs  in  the  stems  or  on  the  buds  and  leaves, 
and  this  continues  until  early  July.  In  the  early  spring,  while 
the  plants  are  small,  the  females  often  push  their  eggs  down  be- 
tween the  leaves  or  into  the  bud,  but  the  usual  method  is  to  insert  them 
in  punctures  made  in  the  stem.  This  puncturing  of  the  stem  often 
seriously  injures  young  plants.  In  about  ten  days  the  eggs  hatch,  and 
the  young  larvae,  at  first  white,  but  soon  turning  to  an  alfalfa-green 
color,  feed  in  the  stems  and  the  buds  and  on  the  leaves.  (Fig.  337.) 
They  attack  the  young  leaves  and  crown,  so  that  a  badly  infested  field 
will  not  make  a  sufficient  growth  to  be  mowed.  The  larvae  do  not  have 
true  legs,  and  when  full  grown  are  from  one-fourth  to  near  a  half  inch 


FIG.  337.  Alfalfa  weevil.  Adults,  clustering  on  and  at- 
tacking sprig  of  alfalfa;  natural  size.  (After  Webster,  U.  S 
Dept.  Agr.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


391 


in  length.  When  full  grown,  which  is  from  fifty  to  sixty  days  after 
hatching,  the  larvae  crawl  or  drop  to  the  ground  and  spin  around  them- 
selves a  cocoon  composed  of  a  network  of  rather  loose,  white  threads. 
This  cocoon  is  usually  in  among  the  dead  leaves  or  rubbish.  The  insect 
remains  in  the  pupal  stage  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  and  then  the 
beetle  emerges.  The  adult  feeds  on  the  stems,  leaves  and  buds  until 
autumn  or  their  hibernating  time.  Professor  Webster,  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Entomology,  says:  "The  entire  life  of  the  insect,  from 
the  deposition  of  the  egg  to  the  emergence  of  the  adult,  may  be  anywhere 
from  forty  to  seventy  days,  while  the  beetle  itself  may  live,  including 
the  winter,  from  ten  to  fourteen  months." 

Methods  of  Control. 

Although  methods  of  control  have  not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily  de- 
termined, Professor  Titus,  entomologist  of  the  Utah  Experiment  Station, 
has  made  extensive  experiments  with  various  methods,  and  in  sum- 
marizing the  methods  of  control  recommends:  "That  alfalfa  be  disked 
in  early  spring  to  stimulate  it  to  better  growth;  that  the  first  growth 
be  cut  when  most  of  the  eggs  have  been  laid  (middle  of  May  in  Utah) 
and  then  brush-drag  the  field  thoroughly.  Fields  should  be  brush-dragged 
again  after  the  first  crop  has  been  cut.  All  weeds  and  rubbish  should 
be  cleaned  from  the  field,  yards,  ditches  and  fence  rows,  so  that  there  will 
be  less  opportunity  for  the  weevil  to  find  winter  shelter.  Alfalfa  should 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  more  than  seven  or  eight  years  in  the  infested 
districts." 

The  Brush  Drag. 

The  following  pattern  and  construction  of  a  brush  drag  is  recom- 
mended by  Professor  Titus:  "Many  patterns  of  the  brush  drag  are  in 

use,  but  the  one  which  seems  to  be  the 
best  for  our  work  is  made  by  laying 
the  butts  of  rather  short  brush,  five  or 
six  feet  long,  in  a  row  on  a  plank 
twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long,  then  an- 
other row  should  be  laid  upon  the  first, 
consisting  of  longer  brush,  with  the 
butts  trimmed  a  little  further  back,  so 
that  you  will  have  in  effect  two  brush 
harrows,  one  following  the  other.  An- 
other plank  should  then  be  laid  on  the 
brush  butts  and  bolted  to  the  under 
plank.  In  weighting  this  harrow,  lay 
an  ordinary  tooth  harrow,  with  the 
teeth  down,  directly  on  the  brush  drag. 
(Fig.  338.)  This  makes  a  very  even 
weight,  at  the  same  time  it  is  so  flex- 
FIG.  338.  Brush  drag.  (After  Titus,  ible  that  the  drag  will  work  its  way 
Utah  Exp.  Sta.)  down  into  the  small  depressions  as  well 

as  over  the  larger  elevations  of  the  field. 

"The  brush  drag  has  for  its  main  object  the  knocking  of  the  larvae 
feeding  on  the  stubble  to  the  ground,  where  it  mangles  many  of  them 


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Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


and  suffocates  others  by  the  dust  stirred  up,  and  tears  up  the  cocoons  that 
are  present  on  the  plant  and  on  the  ground.  If  the  brush  drag  is  built 
right  there  will  be  parts  of  the  brush  tearing  through  every  crown  of 
alfalfa  in  the  field  and  stirring  up  the  soil  sufficiently  to  cause  a  dense 
fine  dust,  in  which  many  of  the  younger  larvae  are  suffocated  and  which 
the  older  ones  find  it  very  hard  to  crawl  through  to  reach  the  plants, 
many  of  them  perishing  in  the  heat  of  the  sun." 

CLOVER   LEAF-WEEVIL. 

(Phytonomus  punctatus  Fab.) 

The  adult  is  a  stout,  oval,  hard-bodied  beetle,  about  one-third  inch  long, 
with  a  long,  thick  snout;  brownish  in  color,  with  several  narrow  gray 
lines  above  and  broad  gray  stripes  on  each  side;  twenty  rows  of  small 
deep  punctures  on  the  wing  covers.  (Fig.  339.)  The  larvae  are  footless, 
at  first  light  yellowish-green,  but  becoming  deeper  green  as  they  grow 
older,  head  brown;  feed  at  night  upon  the  leaves,  gating  out  irregular 
patches  from  the  edges  of  the  leaves;  hardly  noticeable  in  the  day, 
when  they  lie  protected  around  the  base  of  the  plant  lying  curled  up 
head  to  tail.  (Fig.  340.) 

History  and  Distribution. 

This  insect  is  a  native  of  Europe;  first  made  its  appearance  in  Western 
New  York  in  1881.  Since  then  it  has  spread  eastward  and  southward 
until  it  is  now  distributed  in  many  of  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  During  the  year  of  1914  it  was  found  injuring  alfalfa  in 
eastern  and  south  central  Kansas. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  larvae,  which  hatch  from  eggs  that  are  laid  in  the  early  winter 
on  the  stems  near  the  base  of  the  plants,  feed  on  the  leaves  and  become 

partially  grown  before  winter,  when 
they  hibernate  in  rubbish  or  just  be- 
neath the  soil.  They  come  out  in  the 
spring  and  continue  to  feed  on  the 
leaves  until  about  June.  When  full 
grown  they  go  just  under  the  surface 
of  the  soil  and  make  an  earthen  cell 
in  which  they  pupate.  (Fig.  341.) 
The  cells  are  lined  with  coarse  brown 
threads.  They  remain  in  the  pupal 
stage  about  three  weeks.  In  July  the 
beetles  emerge,  and  for  several  weeks 
feed  on  the  leaves,  doing  equally  as 
much  damage  as  the  larvae.  By  early 
fall  the  females  are  ready  to  lay  their 
eggs. 

Methods  of  Control. 
NATURAL  ENEMIES.    That  this  in- 
sect does  not  become  a  more  serious 
pest  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  large  numbers  of  the  larvae  are 
destroyed   by   a   fungous   disease.     When   affected   by   this   disease   the 


FIG.  339.  Clover  leaf-weevil  (Phy- 
tonomus punctatus).  Adult  beetle; 
nearly  six  times  natural  size.  (After 
Folsom.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


393 


larvse  climb  to  the  top  of  the  plant,  curl  tightly  around  the  top  of  a  blade 
of  grass  or  a  leaf,  and  soon  die.  They  are  first  covered  with  a  white  mold, 
but  later  turn  to  a  jelly-like  mass.  The  larvae  are  also  destroyed  by 
birds  and  barnyard  fowls. 


FiQ.  340.  Larva  of  the 
clover  leaf-weevil,  greatly  en- 
larged. (After  Folsom.) 


Fia.  341.  Pupa  of  the 
clover  leaf- weevil ;  greatly 
enlarged.  (After  Folsom.)  . 


REMEDIAL  MEASURES.  Infestations  of  this  insect  have  almost  always 
been  suppressed  by  the  fungous  disease,  and  thus  repeated  injury  has 
been  so  rare  that  no  means  of  artificial  control  has  been  necessary.  If 
the  larvae  are  injuring  the  alfalfa,  the  use  of  the  brush  drag,  as  recom- 
mended for  killing  the  larvae  of  the  alfalfa  weevil,  would  be  an  excellent 
means  of  destroying  the  larvae  of  the  clover  leaf-weevil.  If  a  field  has 
been  infested,  and  damage  is  anticipated  for  the  next  season,  the  winter- 
ing larvae  (just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  in  rubbish,  should  be 
disturbed  by  disking  or  by  using  the  alfalfa  renovator,  cultivator  or 
spiked-tooth  harrow.  This  should  be  done  late  in  the  fall  and  early  in 
the  spring  before  the  larvae  come  out  of  their  wintering  quarters.  Disk- 
ing or  cultivating  again  after  the  larvae  have  entered  the  ground  to 
pupate  would  probably  destroy  many  of  the  pupae,  not  only  by  crushing 
but  also  by  exposing  them  to  various  foes. 

MOUND-BUILDING  PRAIRIE  ANT. 

(Pogonomyrmex  occidentalis  Cresson.) 

Large,  red  ants,  constructing  gravel-covered  mounds,  each  surrounded 
by  its  bare  circular  area. 


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Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  342.    External  view  of  a  nest  of  the  mound-building  prairie  ant 
(Pogonomyrmex  occidentalis) .      (Original.) 

Distribution. 

This  ant  is  found  throughout  Kansas  west  of  a  line  running  across 
the  state  through  Belleville,  in  Republic  county,  and  Oxford,  in  Sumner 
county.  The  mounds  are  small  and  scarce  in  the  eastern  border,  but 
become  larger  and  more  plentiful  westward. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  ants  clear  away  the  vegetation  from  a  small  area  and  construct 
their  mounds  near  its  center.  (Fig.  342.)  They  excavate  an  extensive 
series  of  chambers  and  connecting  galleries  that  reach  far  down  into 
the  earth,  in  many  cases  ten  or  more  feet.  Above  the  excavations  they 
pile  the  mined  soil,  cementing  it  together  to  form  a  mound  ranging  from 
a  few  inches  to  two  feet  in  height,  itself  honeycombed  with  chambers  and 
passageways.  A  layer  from  one-half  to  one  inch  in  thickness  over  the 
top  of  the  mound  is  composed  of  coarse  particles.  The  sides  of  the 
mound  thus  constructed  are  pierced  by  from  one  to  three  or  more 
funnelshaped  openings. 

The  entire  colony,  consisting  of  a  limited  number  of  males  and  fertile 
females  (queens)  and,  in  large  nests,  of  an  immense  number  of  workers 
(sterile  females),  lives  and  reproduces  within  these  ever-dark  chambers 
and  galleries.  During  summer,  when  the  weather  is  clear,  the  workers 
go  into  the  field  between  eight  and  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning.  They  re- 
turn to  the  nest  about  noon  and  remain  there  until  the  hottest  part  of 
the  day  is  past,  then  come  forth  and  work  until  evening.  On  cloudy 
days  they  do  not  return  at  noon.  Just  before  sundown  a  small  force  of 
workers  collects  little  pebbles  and  other  coarse  particles  like  those  of 
which  the  gravelly  roofing  is  composed,  and  stop  up  the  openings  so 
carefully  that  one  must  look  a  long  time  to  discover  their  location.  On 
the  approach  of  a  storm  a  large  force  is  employed  and  the  gateways  are 
closed  in  haste,  but  when  it  has  passed  they  are  reopened  and  the  ants 
return  to  their  work. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


395 


The  ant  colonies  are  too  few  seriously  to  decrease  the  yield,  although 
occasionally  they  will  destroy  the  alfalfa  on  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of 
the  total  area  of  a  badly  infested  field.  Their  claim  to  rank  as  alfalfa 
pests  lies  principally  in  the  increased  difficulty  of  harvesting  the  crop 
when  they  are  present. 

Methods  of  Control. 

Extended  experiments  have  shown  that  the  ants  can  most  easily  and 
efficiently  be  controlled  by  fumigating  the  nest  with  carbon  bisulphide,  as 
follows:  Set  fumigation  only  when  gateways  are  open.  Invert  a  gal- 
vanized-iron  vessel,  such  as  a  common  washtub,  over  one  or  more  of  the 
openings,  covering  as  much  of  the  mound  as  possible;  firmly  pack  soil 
over  such  holes  as  the  tub  will  not  reach.  Introduce  under  the  tub  and 
near  the  holes  a  shallow  dish  containing  from  one  to  three  ounces  (de- 
pending on  the  size  of  the  nest)  of  carbon  bisulphide.  Set  the  tub  down 
and  quickly  pack  soil  about  the  rim,  making  it  as  nearly  air-tight  as  pos- 
sible; allow  to  stand  for  five  hours.  The  forming  vapor,  being  heavier 
than  air,  sinks  downward  and  comes  to  fill  every  chamber  and  gallery, 
destroying  all  the  occupants. 

CAUTION.  It  must  be  remembered  that  carbon  bisulphide  is  as  ex- 
plosive as  gasoline  and  must  be  used  with  equal  care. 


\ 


FIG.  343.  Ash-gray  blister- 
beetle  (Maorobasis  unicolor). 
Female  beetle;  nearly  twice  nat- 
ural size.  (After  Chittenden,  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


FIG.  344.  Three- 
lined  blister-beetle  (Epi- 
cauta  lemniscata)  ;  about 
twice  natural  size.  (Af- 
ter Headlee,  Kan.  Eicp. 
Sta.) 


BLISTER-BEETLES. 

(Meloidse.) 

Ash-gray,  black,  yellowish,  or  black  and  yellow  striped  beetles  with  long 
legs  and  elongated  bodies,  that  sometimes  suddenly  appear  in  alfalfa 
fields  and  quickly  destroy  the  foliage.  (Figs.  343  and  344.) 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

Several  species  of  blister-beetles  are  common  in  central  and  western 
Kansas,  and  sometimes  very  destructive  to  alfalfa.  Some  of  these  have 
sort  of  a  migratory  habit;  that  is,  they  suddenly  come  in  large  numbers 
in  a  field,  ruin  a  part  or  all  of  the  crop  in  a  few  days,  when  they  go 


396 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


elsewhere  or  disappear,  and  may  be  seen  no  more  until  the  following  year. 
However,  after  the  departure  of  one  species,  a  second  and  even  a  third 
may  come  during  the  season. 

The  life  history  of  the  blister-beetles  is  not  only  peculiar  but  also  com- 
plicated. The  adult  female  beetle  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs  in  a  small 
cavity  in  the  ground,  and  in  about  ten  days  there  hatches  from  the  eggs 
small,  long-legged  larvae,  which  run  about  searching  for  the  pods  of  grass- 
hopper eggs,  upon  which  they  feed.  During  the  summer  the  larvae  pass 
through  several  rather  distinct  forms,  hibernate  in  the  ground  during 
the  winter,  appear  again  as  larvae  the  next  spring,  pupate  later,  and 
transform  to  adult  beetles  in  the  summer. 

Methods  of  Control. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  larvae  of  the  blister-beetle  destroy 
large  numbers  of  grasshopper  eggs  and  thus  aid  in  keeping  these  insects 
under  control.  However,  in  many  cases  the  alfalfa  grower  finds  that  the 
benefits  derived  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  losses  caused  by  the 
beetles,  and  thus  measures  must  be  used  to  destroy  them. 

Inasmuch  as  blister-beetles  usually  make  their  attack  on  alfalfa  during 
the  latter  part  of  July  and  through  August,  and  since  they  usually  move 
in  from  some  adjoining  field  or  appear  in  some  local  place  in  the  field,  a 
close  watch  should  be  kept,  and  just  as  soon  as  they  appear  methods  of 
control  should  be  put  into  operation.  Spraying  with  Paris  green  is  one 
of  the  best  remedies.  The  infested  portion  of  the  alfalfa  should  be 
thoroughly  sprayed,  using  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  Paris  green  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water.  In  using  Paris  green  two  pounds  of  stone  lime 
should  be  used  to  every  pound  of  Paris  green.  Alfalfa  sprayed  with  Paris 
green  should  not  be  used  for  hay.  However,  it  is  better  to  sacrifice  a 
portion  of  the  crop  by  spraying  with  Paris  green  than  to  leave  the  beetles 
to  continue  their  ravages  and  thus  destroy  a  much  larger  part  of  the  crop. 
Since  the  poisoned  beetles  are  sometimes  replaced  by  others,  it  is  neces- 
sary on  such  occasions  to  repeat  the  applications  of  spray.  Inasmuch  as 
the  beetles  are  wild,  and  when  disturbed  will  drop  from  the  plants  to  the 
ground  and  run  rapidly,  seeking  some  sheltered  place  under  which  they 


FIG.  345.  Clover  leaf-hopper  (Agallia  sanquinolenta) .  a,  adult;  &,  nymph, 
side  view ;  c,  nymph,  dorsal  view ;  d,  face ;  e,  front  wing.  All  much  enlarged. 
(After  Osborn  and  Ball.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  397 

may  crawl,  a  line  of  men  and  children  may  go  into  the  field  and  slowly 
drive  the  beetles  ahead  of  them  with  branches.  Before  doing  this,  wind- 
rows of  hay,  straw  or  other  dry  vegetable  material  should  be  prepared  or 
placed  along  the  side  of  the  field.  When  the  beetles  have  run  in  under  or 
have  taken  refuge  in  the  windrows,  it  is  fired  and  the  beetles  burned. 
This  method  has  been  used  with  success  in  the  West  and  Southwest.  The 
important  thing  in  the  successful  control  of  blister-beetles  is  to  apply 
whatever  remedy  is  used  just  as  soon  as  the  beetles  are  discovered. 

LEAF-HOPPERS. 

(Jassidse.) 

Small,  green,  gray  or  yellowish  insects  that,  when  disturbed,  hop  and  fly 
swiftly  about  among  the  plants.     They  suck  the  sap  from  the  leaves 
and  tender  shoots,  causing  the  leaves  to  turn  yellow. 
While  there  are  several  species  of  leaf  -hoppers  attacking  alfalfa,  prob- 
ably the  most  injurious  and  the  most  widely  distributed  one  in  the  al- 
falfa  districts  is  the  clover  leaf-hopper    (Agallia 
sanquinolenta)  .     (Fig.  345.)     Another  one  that  is 
•also  fairly  common  in  the  alfalfa  fields  is  the  apple 
leaf  -hopper  (Empoasca  mali)  .    In  several  districts 
species  of  the  genus  Deltocephalus  are  rather  com- 
mon.   (Fig.  346.) 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  leaf-hoppers  can  usually  be  distinguished 
from  other  insects  in  the  alfalfa  field  by  their  habit, 
when  disturbed,  of  hopping,  jumping  and  flying 
swiftly  about.  When  abundant,  swarms  of  them 
will  jump  up  as  one  walks  through  the  field.  So 
per  eaceaus  far  as  nas  been  determined,  the  species  affecting 


times  natural  size.   (Af-      alfalfa  lay  their  eggs  in  the  leaves  or  stems  of  the 

ter  Headlee,  Kan.  Exp. 

Sta.)  leaves.    In  some  cases  the  eggs  are  pushed  into  the 

.  margin  of  the  leaf  or  the  stem,  and  thus  are  pro- 
tected by  the  thin  covering  of  the  leaf.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days, 
except  in  the  case  of  hibernating  eggs,  and  the  young  forms,  instead  of 
consuming  the  stems  and  foliage,  thrust  their  heads  into  the  leaves  and 
tender  shoots  and  suck  the  sap.  The  feeding  punctures  cause  pale  yellow- 
ish spots,  and  if  very  numerous  give  the  foliage  a  distinctly  yellowish  or 
bleached  appearance.  With  most  of  our  species  there  are  probably  two 
generations  in  a  single  season.  The  leaf  -hoppers  winter  mostly  as  adults, 
in  rubbish.  In  some  cases  the  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage. 

Methods  of  Control. 

Owing  to  the  habit  of  the  adults  hibernating  during  the  winter,  the 
fall,  winter  or  early  spring  burning  of  dead  leaves  and  rubbish  around 
the  edges  of  the  field,  along  ravines  and  bordering  on  orchards  and 
woodlands,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  destroying 
them.  Where  they  occur  in  destructive  numbers  the  spraying  of  alfalfa 
fields  with  a  nicotine  sulphate  or  kerosene  emulsion  spray  directly  after 
cutting  the  crop  would  kill  large  numbers  of  them.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  that  the  most  efficient  method  of  destroying  them  lies  in  the  use  of 


398 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


a  hopperdozer  of  a  special  type.  One  style  consists  of  a  strip  of  sheet 
iron  coated  with  coal  tar.  The  apparatus  is  drawn  over  the  field  after 
the  crop  has  been  cut,  and  the  insects,  hopping  at  its  approach,  fall  upon 
the  surface  coated  with  tar,  and  thus  many  are  killed. 

THE  ALFALFA-SEED   OR   CLOVER-SEED   CHALCIS-FLY. 

(Bruchophagus  funebris  How.) 

The  adult  is  a  small,  four-winged,  wasp-like  insect,  compact  in  form, 
less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  black  in  color.  (Fig.  347.)  The 
larva  is  a  tiny  grub  that  lives  in  the  ripening  seeds  of  alfalfa  or 
clover. 


FIG.  348.   Work  of  the  clover- 
seed    chalcis-fly    in    alfalfa    seed. 

no.  347.  Ctever-  <A"er  HeadUe'  ^  E*p-  Sta-> 

seed  chalcis-fly  (Bru- 
chophagus funebris). 
Adult;  15  times 
natural  size.  (After 
Headlee,  Kan.  Exp. 
Sta.)  , 

Distribution. 

This  insect,  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  probably  occurs  over  the  en- 
tire United  States  wherever  its  food  plants  are  grown.  It  formerly  de- 
voted its  attention  to  clover  seed,  but  of  recent  years  has  proved  very 
serious  on  alfalfa  seed,  and  is  causing  a  large  annual  loss. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  chalcis-fly  hibernates  or  passes  the  winter  as  a  full-grown  larva 
within  alfalfa  seeds,  on  the  ground,  in  neglected  fields  and  along  fence 
lines  and  ditch  banks.  Many  of  them  are  also  found  in  the  alfalfa  seed 
pods  left  in  the  field  in  removing  the  crop,  and  in  the  screenings  around 
alfalfa  straw  stacks.  The  adults  emerge  in  the  latter  part  of  spring  or 
in  early  summer,  and  the  females  deposit  or  insert  their  eggs  in  the 
young  seed  at  the  time  it  is  in  a  semifluid  state,  and  the  tiny  grub,  as  it 
develops,  consumes  the  contents  of  the  seed.  (Fig.  348.)  It  undergoes 
its  pupal  transformations  within  the  seed  and  emerges  as  an  adult 
through  a  little  opening  in  the  seed  shell.  The  second  generation  of 
adults  appear  about  the  middle  of  August  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  sec- 
ond or  third  growth.  Some  adults  from  these  appear  the  same  season, 
and  the  rest  not  until  the  following  year.  There  are  at  least  two  gener- 
ations a  year,  and  probably  a  third. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  399 

Methods  of  Control. 

Inasmuch  as  the  larvae  of  the  chalcis-fly  are  able  to  pass  completely 
through  the  first  generation  in  the  earliest-maturing  pods,  and  since 
the  early  pods  have  an  especially  large  percentage  of  the  seeds  infested, 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  cut  the  alfalfa  and  get  it  in  the  barns  or 
stacks  before  the  larvae  mature.  The  early-maturing  pods  developing  on 
plants  in  waste  places,  along  ditch  banks  and  fence  lines,  are  a  source 
of  danger  and  should  be  cut  or  destroyed.  If  these  methods  of  control 
are  practiced  it  will  greatly  lessen  the  numbers  of  the  second  generation 
and  thus  protect  the  main  seed  crop. 

The  screenings  which  are  left  after  the  alfalfa  is  threshed  often  con- 
tain large  numbers  of  infested  seeds,  and  unless  the  screenings  are  burned 
or  piled  up  so  as  to  decay,  the  adult  chalcis-flies  will  emerge  from  them 
the  following  spring. 

THE  CLOVER-HAY  WORM. 

(Hypsopygia  aostalis  Fab.) 
Dirty-white  to  brownish  worms,  with  head  more  or  less  reddish,  when 

fully   grown   measuring   about   three-fourths   of   an   inch   in   length, 

matting  and  injuring  alfalfa  hay  in  stack  and  mow,  giving  the  hay  a 

moldy  appearance. 

The  clover-hay  worm  has  become  quite  abundant  over  Kansas  wherever 
alfalfa  and  clover  are  grown.  This  worm  attacks  alfalfa,  clover  and 
timothy  hay,  both  in  the  mow  and  the  stack,  cutting  the  leaves  into  chaffy 
pieces  and  webbing  the  mass  together  by  an  abundance  of  silken  threads, 
which  it  is  the  habit  of  the  worm  to  spin  at  all  times.  Hay  so  infested 
looks  moldy  and  matted,  and  the  abundance  of  silken  threads  mingled 
with  the  excrement  of  the  worms  renders  the  hay  distasteful  and  even 
unfit  for  stock. 

History  and  Distribution. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  this  insect  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  early 
became  introduced  into  this  country.  It  now  occurs  over  Europe,  southern 
Canada,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States.  With  the  extensive 
growing  of  alfalfa  it  has  become  a  serious  pest  throughout  the  alfalfa- 
and  clover-growing  states. 

Habits  and  Life  History. 

The  worms  are  usually  noticed  toward  the  bottom  of  the  stack.  How- 
ever, in  hay  kept  over  the  second  year,  they  may  be  all  through  the  stack. 
The  "worms"  when  young  are  of  a  dirty-white  color,  but  as  they  grow 
older  they  become  brown,  with  the  head  more  or  less  reddish,  and  when 
mature  measure  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larvae  are 
very  active  and  wriggle  forward  or  backward  with  equal  ease.  They  spin 
silken  webs  in  the  hay,  and  frequently  suspend  themselves  by  a  thread 
when  moving  about.  The  worms  work  in  the  hay  all  through  the  fall, 
winter  and  the  early  part  of  spring.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  a  thin 
silken  cocoon,  spun  in  some  protected  nook  or  near  where  the  larval  life  is 
passed.  The  adult  moth,  which  appears  from  the  middle  of  May  on 
through  June  and  early  July,  is  a  little  insect  with  wings  spreading 


400 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


about  four-fifths  of  an  inch.  (Fig.  349.)  The  color  is  lilac  brown,  with 
two  bands  of  lighter  shade,  each  starting  from  a  yellow  spot  on  the  front 

of  the  wing.  The  females  de- 
posit their  eggs  directly  upon  the 
hay  in  the  stack  or  mow,  and 
probably  upon  the  hay  in  the 
windrow.  The  worms  of  the  sec- 
ond brood  appear  in  July  and 
August,  and  the  moths  of  this 
brood  emerge  in  August,  and  the 
larvse  produced  by  this  brood  are 
those  which  remain  in  the  stack 
through  the  winter. 

This  insect  is  always  more 
abundant  where  old  hay  remains 
over  summer  in  stack  bottoms  re- 
built in  the  same  places  year 
after  year  of  the  waste  hay  re- 
maining over.  The  moths  may 
often  be  seen  resting  on  the  walls 
and  timbers  within  barns  where 

alfalfa  or  clover  hay  has  been  stored.  The  abundance  of  the  moths  in 
such  places  should  warn  the  owner  to  clean  out  the  mow  thoroughly  be- 
fore storing  the  new  crop. 

Methods  of  Control. 

Never  stack  alfalfa,  clover  or  timothy  hay  on  old  bottoms  and  tops  left 
over  in  the  stacking  places.  Burn  all  of  the  old  bottoms  and  tops.  Clean 
out  the  mow  thoroughly  before. storing  the  new  crop.  Never  put  new  hay 
on  the  top  of  old,  whether  in  the  stack  or  the  mow.  (See  "Insects,"  in 
index.) 


FIG.  349.  Clover-hay  worm  (Hypsopygia 
coatalis).  1,  2,  larvae  suspended  by  thread; 
3,  cocoon;  4,  pupa  removed  from  cocoon;  5, 
6,  adult  moth;  7,  larva  covered  by  silken 
thread.  All  natural  size.  (After  Riley,  6th 
Mo.  Rep.) 


Alfalfa  uses  to  advantage  more  water  than  any  other  crop. 

It  will  live  and  grow  with  less  water  in  the  soil  than  any  common  crop. 

Its  roots  penetrate  effectively  to  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet  or  more,  and 
may  draw  water  through  ten  or  more  feet  of  dry  soil. 

An  alfalfa  field  contains  less  moisture  in  the  first  ten  feet  of  soil  than 
any  other  field. — W.  P.  Snyder,  in  the  Nebraska  Farmer. 

Where  hay  sheds  are  not  used,  stack  covers  often  pay  big  dividends. 
Ordinary  unbleached  muslin  may  be  used  to  make  stack  cqyers.  The 
covers  used  by  one  grower  are  fifteen  feet  square,  and  are  held  to  the 
stacks  by  means  of  concrete  blocks.  A  small  rope  is  sewed  into  the 
cover  every  five  feet,  making  three  to  a  side.  Concrete  blocks  are  then 
tied  on,  and  the  covers  never  blow  off.  As  soon  as  the  hay  in  the  stack  is 
moved  the  cover  is  dried  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  for  future  use.  Covers 
which  he  has  used  for  three  years  are  still  in  good  shape.  Of  course  the 
covers  may  be  made  to  fit  any  style  of  stack. — Wallace's  Farmer. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


401 


BEES  AND  THEIR  RELATION  TO  ALFALFA. 

By  S.  J.  HUNTER,  Entomologist,  University  of  Kansas. 

Every  alfalfa  grower  should  be  a  beekeeper.    In  industry,  productivity, 
adaptability  and  utility  the  honeybee  is  second  to  none.     The  alfalfa 

grower  who  is  likewise  a  beekeeper 
receives  two-fold  return  from  his  al- 
falfa crop.  He  will,  therefore,  do 
well  to  take  advantage  of  the  use- 
fulness of  this  remarkable  little  co- 
worker. 

In  the  case  of  the  alfalfa  blossom, 
a  study  of  its  structure  shows,  both 
from  its  shape  and  size,  that  it  is  not 
probable  that  cross-fertilization  could 
be  safely  depended  upon  by  means  of 
currents  of  air.  It  becomes  evident, 
then,  that  outside  agencies  must  be 
called  upon,  and  the  plant  must  pro- 
vide for  these  agencies.  The  agents 
in  this  case  we  find  to  be  insects,  and 
the  reward  offered  by  the  plant  for 
favors  rendered  is  a  sweet  drop  of 
nectar;  that  is,  the  flower  in  an  entic- 
ing way  places  a  tempting  sip  of 
nectar  in  such  a  position  that  when 
the  insect  has  favored  the  flower  with 
a  few  grains  of  pollen  unconsciously 
brought  from  an  adjoining  flower, 
and  just  -as  unconsciously  left,  the 
coveted  sip  may  be  enjoyed. 


FIG.  350.  A  honey  bee  in  the  act  of 
gathering  nectar,  and  at  the  same  time 
cross-fertilizing  the  alfalfa  blossom. 


INFLUENCE   OF   BEES   UPON    THE   SEED   CROP. 

The  process  of  fertilization  in  a  typical  flower  is  not  complex.  The 
stamens  have  long  filaments  which  bear  the  pollen-producing  anthers 
high  above  the  ovary.  When  the  pollen  is  ripe  it  falls  naturally  upon  the 
stigma  of  the  ovary,  and  fertilization  of  the  seed  is  soon  accomplished. 

The  writer  conducted  a  number  of  experiments  upon  the  fertilization 
of  the  alfalfa  blossom.  The  first  work  consisted  in  covering  a  large  num- 
ber of  blossoms  with  fine  cheesecloth.  It  soon  became  evident  that  this 
would  exclude  all  insects,  and  the  good  services  of  the  bee  would  not  be 
demonstrated,  so  that  this  line  was  discontinued  and  another  taken  up. 

BEES   INCREASE  THE   SEED   CROP. 

A  large  number  of  representative  ripened  pods  were  gathered  from  an 
alfalfa  field  less  than  one-half  mile  away  from  a  large  apiary,  and  a  like 
number  from  another  field  of  much  the  same  soil  and  practically  under 


—14 


402  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

like  conditions  as  the  first  field,  except  that  the  second  field  was  situated 
twenty-five  miles  away  from  a  colony  of  bees.  No  bees  were  observed 
in  the  field,  and  the  character  of  the  surroundings,  there  being  no  timber 
or  probable  living  places,  were  such  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  wild 
bees  in  the  vicinity.  The  pods  from  each  locality  were  carefully  opened 
and  the  number  of  seeds  in  each  counted.  The  results  and  comparison  to 
be  made  therefrom  are  certainly  of  interest. 

In  seeds  taken  a  half  mile  from  bees,  87  pods  being  examined,  there 
was  found  to  be  an  average  number  of  5.58  +  seeds  in  a  pod.  The 
seeds  were  plump,  the  pods  numerous  in  cluster  and  having  several 
spirals. 

In  seeds  taken  twenty-five  miles  from  bees,  80  pods  being  examined, 
there  was  found  to  be  an  average  number  of  3.35  seeds  in  a  pod.  The 
seeds  in  at  least  one-third  of  the  pods  were  small  and  shriveled,  the  pods 
few  in  a  cluster,  short,  and  with  but  few  spirals. 

This  shows  a  per  cent  of  increase  of  the  first  field  over  the  second 
of  66%. 

ALFALFA  AS  A   HONEY  PLANT. 

My  observations  upon  this  subject  during  the  season  in  which  this 
work  was  carried  on  have  been  that  it  will  yield  the  greatest  amount  of 
nectar  under  circumstances  which  tend  to  give  the  plant  the  most  vig- 
orous growth;  that  is,  proper  amount  of  heat  and  moisture,  upon  suit- 
able soil.  If  the  plant  is  upon  upland,  dry  weather  will  affect  the  se- 
cretion of  nectar  before  it  will  be  affected  in  a  valley,  such  as  the 
Arkansas  valley,  where  the  roots  of  the  plants  extend  to  the  water.  In 
September  the  bees  were  busy  in  the  alfalfa  in  the  Arkansas  valley, 
while  on  the  higher  ground  of  one  of  the  counties  on  the  eastern  border 
I  visited  a  beautiful  piece  of  alfalfa  near  an  apiary,  but  no  bees  were 
found.  They  were  at  that  time  flying  over  the  alfalfa  to  the  knotweeds 
beyond.  A  strong  point  in  favor  of  this  plant,  as  shown  by  Muller,  is 
that  it  continues  to  secrete  nectar  as  long  as  the  blossom  flourishes.  A 
greater  part  of  the  alfalfa  produced  in  this  state  is  cultivated  for  forage, 
and,  since  for  this  purpose  it  is  not  often  cut  while  in  full  bloom,  the 
honey  crop  is  materially  less  than  it  would  be  if  alfalfa  were  allowed  to 
mature.  During  a  dry  period  bees  will  fly  over  alfalfa  fields  in  bloom 
to  a  field  which  has  been  irrigated  a  few  days  previously  and  has  begun 
to  bloom.  . 

The  bees  gather  the  nectar  from  the  blossoms,  and  at  the  same  time 
insure  the  formation  of  seed  where  the  blossom  was.  The  results  noted 
show  that  seed  crops  upon  which  bees  worked  were  two-thirds  greater  than 
the  crops  taken  from  alfalfa  dependent  upon  other  insects  for  pollination. 

Many  flowers  cease  to  secrete  nectar  after  being  pollinated.  Alfalfa 
continues  to  secrete  nectar  until  the  blossom  begins  to  wither.  The  only 
objection  found  with  alfalfa  is  the  not  infrequent  removal  of  the  plant 
for  hay  during  the  blooming  stage.  It  is  no  unusual  thing,  however,  to 
find  within  range  of  the  apiary  several  thousand  acres  of  alfalfa.  Here 
the  second  crop  is  in  bloom  before  the  first  is  all  in  the  swath,  and  this 
continual  blossoming  places  the  coveted  nectar  before  the  bee  from  the 
15th  of  June  until  the  middle  of  October. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  403 

The  pecuniary  value  of  the  honey  itself  should  not  be  overlooked.  In 
an  alfalfa  region  100  pounds  of  comb  honey  often  is  yielded  by  a  single 
hive  in  one  season.  The  authentic  daily  record  from  the  Colorado  State 
Beekeepers'  Association  of  one  hive  of  bees  shows  182  pounds. 

Alfalfa  honey  always  finds  a  ready  market.  Regarding  the  quality, 
Chesire  defines  ideal  honey  as :  "An  ideal  sample  would  have  a  delicate  but 
characteristic  aroma,  a  rich  flavor,  leaving  a  distinct  impression  on  the 
back  of  the  palate,  and  would  be  of  a  straw  or  pale  amber  color.  It  should 
possess  perfect  clearness,  and,  as  distinct  from  clearness,  brightness  due 
to  a  high  refractive  index,  with  density  almost  amounting  to  toughness, 
so  that  the  air  beneath  the  cork  should  rise  very  slowly  through  the  mass 
upon  the  inversion  of  the  bottle." 

Of  six  samples  submitted,  a  competent  judge  placed  the  alfalfa  honey 
as  the  one  most  nearly  approaching  this  standard. 

The  greatest  enthusiasm  manifested  in  apiculture  is  found  in  localities 
where  large  areas  of  alfalfa  exist.  For  example,  if  you  will  refer  to  the 
tables  of  the  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  published  from  time  to 
time,  you  will  note  that  the  largest  production  of  honey  comes  from  those 
counties  characterized  by  the  largest  acreage  of  alfalfa.  (See  "Bees," 
in  index.) 

THE  FEEDING  CONSTITUENTS  OF  ALFALFA. 

By  C.  O.  SWANSON,  Assistant  Professor  of  Chemistryj  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

The  feeding  constituents  which  are  usually  determined  in  a  feed  are: 
water,  ash,  crude  protein,  crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  ether 
extract.  Water  is  usually  present  in  all  feeds.  Well-cured  alfalfa  will 
contain  about  8  per  cent  water,  or  160  pounds  per  ton.  The  amount  of 
water  in  a  feed  depends  on  the  treatment  given  the  feed,  the  nature  of  the 
feed,  and  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  The  amount  of  water  in  a  feed 
is  of  great  economic  importance.  Alfalfa  hay,  field  cured,  having  25  per 
cent  moisture,  or  500  pounds  per  ton,  has  not  the  same  value  per  ton  as 
the  same  hay  thoroughly  cured,  when  the  moisture  content  is  8  per  cent, 
or  160  pounds  per  ton. 

The  ash  is  the  mineral  portion  of  the  feed.  It  contains,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  nitrogen,  all  of  the  materials  which  the  plant  obtains  from  the 
soil.  The  elements  present  in  the  ash  figure  largely,  therefore,  in  all  soil- 
fertility  problems.  The  ash  furnishes  to  the  animal  the  elements  neces- 
sary for  building  bones,  and  contributes  to  its  general  well-being.  The 
two  elements  in  the  ash  of  greatest  importance  in  nutrition  are  phosphorus 
and  calcium.  Alfalfa  contains  large  amounts  of  these  elements.  Well- 
cured  alfalfa  cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  contains  0.23  per  cent  phosphorus 
and  1.50  per  cent  calcium,  or  4.6  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  30  pounds  of 
calcium  per  ton.  This  phosphorus  is  equivalent  to  very  nearly  32  pounds 
of  bone  phosphate. 

Crude  protein  includes  all  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  plant.  It 
furnishes  material  for  growth  and  repair.  It  can  also  be  used  by  the 
animal  for  the  production  of  heat  and  energy.  In  the  absence  of  a  proper 
amount  of  protein  growth  does  not  take  place.  Alfalfa  is  classed  with 


404 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


the  feeds  particularly  rich  in  protein.  The  comparatively  large  quantity 
of  protein  which  alfalfa  contains  is  its  chief  characteristic. 

Crude  fiber  includes  those  compounds  which  make  up  the  "framework" 
of  the  plant.  These  compounds  are  not  worthless  for  feed,  but  they  are 
tough,  and  to  masticate  and  digest  them  requires  a  great  amount  of 
energy.  The  crude-fiber  content  of  concentrates  is  low  as  compared  with 
feeds  classed  as  roughage.  The  crude-fiber  content  of  alfalfa  increases 
as  the  plant  approaches  maturity. 

The  ether  extract  includes  the  fats  and  oils,  but  not  all  of  the  ether 
extract  is  fat  or  oil.  The  ether  extract  of  concentrates  is  nearly  all  fat  or 
oil,  while  only  a  small  portion  of  the  ether  extract  of  roughage  is  fat  or 
oil.  The  ether  extract  of  roughage  is  of  very  little  importance  from  the 
feeder's  standpoint. 

All  compounds  not  contained  in  the  above  constituents  are  included  un- 
der the  term  "nitrogen-free  extract."  In  concentrates  the  nitrogen-free 
extract  is  made  up  mostly  of  starch.  In  roughage  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract contains  large  amounts  of  pentosans  and  other  compounds  that  have 
a  higher  feeding  value  than  crude  fiber,  but  lower  than  starch.  There  are 
also  small  amounts  of  other  compounds  present,  most  of  which  should  be 
considered  as  having  about  the  same  value  as  starch.  Sugar  is  one  of 
these. 

In  considering  the  percentage  of  constituents  in  any  feed  it  is  necessary 
to  take  into  account  the  amount  of  water  which  the  feed  contains.  Corn 
silage  which  contains  74  per  cent  of  water  can  not  be  compared,  pound 
for  pound,  in  feeding  value  with  corn  silage  which  contains  68  per  cent 
water.  Suppose  that  alfalfa  cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  were  analyzed  when 
green,  when  field  cured,  and  when  thoroughly  cured  in  the  barn.  The 
green  material  would  contain  about  72  per  cent  of  moisture,  the  field  cured 
ready  to  stack  about  26  per  cent,  and  the  thoroughly  cured  about  8  per 
cent.  Having  determined  the  constituents  under  any  known  moisture 
condition,  it  is  a  matter  of  calculation  to  get  the  percentage  composition 
under  any  other  known  moisture  condition.  In  comparing  the  composition 
of  feeds  it  is  customary  to  calculate  either  to  a  uniform  moisture  basis  or 
to  the  basis  of  no  moisture.  The  variations  in  the  percentage  of  con- 
stituents of  alfalfa  under  different  moisture  conditions  are  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 

TABLE'NO.  33. — Percentage  of  constituents  of  alfalfa  under  different  moisture  conditions. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Completely  dry  

0.00 

9.53 

17.79 

27.13 

42.59 

3.18 

Barn  cured  

8.00 

8.77 

16.37 

24.96 

39.17 

2.93 

Field  cured 

26  00 

7.05 

13.16 

19.39 

31.52 

2.35 

Green  

72.00 

2.67 

4.98 

7.34 

11.93 

0  89 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


405 


It  can  easily  be  seen  that  the  lower  the  per  cent  of  water  the  higher 
the  per  cent  of  all  the  other  constituents.  The  same  fact  can  be  brought 
out  more  forcibly  by  calculating  the  pounds  of  constituents  in  a  ton, 
under  the  above  moisture  percentages.  The  less  water  in  the  alfalfa  the 
more  pounds  of  other  constituents. 

TABLE  No.  34.     Pounds  of  constituents  in  a  ton  of  alfalfa,  with  different  moisture  content. 


PER  CENT  MOISTURE. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

0.00  

0.00 

190.6 

355.8 

542.6 

851.8 

63.6 

8.00  

160.00 

175.0 

327.4 

.499.2 

783.6 

58.6 

26.00  

520.00 

141.0 

263.2 

401.6 

630.4 

47.0 

72  .  00  

1440.00 

53.0 

99.6 

152.0 

238.6 

17.8 

THE    PERCENTAGE    OF    FEEDING    CONSTITUENTS    OF    ALFALFA    AS    INFLUENCED 
BY  STAGE  OF   MATURITY. 

The  percentage  of  the  different  constituents  of  alfalfa  will  also  depend 
on  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  it  is  cut.  In  an  experiment  at  the 
Experiment  Station,  alfalfa  was  cut  in  the  bud  stage,  in  one-tenth  bloom, 
in  full  bloom,  and  at  the  time  of  seed  formation.  Samples  of  the  green 
material  were  taken,  and  these  were  dried  without  any  loss  of  leaves; 
therefore  the  percentage  composition  represents  that  of  the  entire  plant. 
The  results  are  all  calculated  to  a  uniform  moisture  basis  of  10  per  cent, 
and  are  strictly  comparable. 

TABLE  No.  35.     Feeding  constituents  of  alfalfa  cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity. 


STAGE  OF  MATURITY. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Cut  in  bud 

10  62 

19  65 

22  50 

35  06 

2  36 

Cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  

9.59 

18.38 

23.58 

35.42 

2.93 

Cut  in  full  bloom  

8.79 

16  30 

25  01 

36  07 

3.77 

Cut  in  seed  

7.53 

14.98 

26.52 

37.36 

3.34 

The  figures  show  that  the  percentages  of  crude  fiber  and  nitrogen- 
free  extract  increase  as  the  plant  matures.  Ether  extract  does  not 
seem  to  show  any  uniform  change.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  alfalfa 
cut  early  will  contain  more  of  the  most  valuable  feeding  constituent — 
protein — than  the  alfalfa  which  is  cut  late.  Whether  or  not  it  is  best  tc 
cut  alfalfa  at  one-tenth  bloom,  or  earlier,  is  another  question,  and  is  not 
discussed  here.  These  figures  simply  show  that  the  alfalfa  cut  in  the 
earlier  stages  is  more  valuable  as  a  feed  rich  in  protein  than  alfalfa  cut 
in  later  stages.  This  fact  is  emphasized  if  we  calculate  the  pounds  of 
constituents  there  would  be  in  a  ton  of  alfalfa  cut  at  different  stages  of 

maturity. 

-' 


406 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


TABLE  No.  36.     Pounds  of  feeding  constituents  in  alfalfa  cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity 


STAGE  OP  MATURITY. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Cut  in  bud  . 

212  4 

oqq    n 

47.2 

Cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  

191.8 

367.6 

471.6 

708.4 

58.6 

Cut  in  full  bloom  . 

175  8 

326  0 

cnfl    o 

Cut  in  seed  

150.6 

299.6 

530.4 

747.2 

66.8 

The  earlier  alfalfa  is  cut  the  greater  the  total  amount  of  ash  and  pro- 
tein per  ton,  and  the  later  the  alfalfa  is  cut  the  greater  the  amount  of 
crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract.  There  are  68  pounds  more  protein 
in  a  ton  of  alfalfa  cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  than  in  a  ton  of  alfalfa  cut  at 
the  time  of  seed  formation. 

COMPARATIVE   VALUE   OF   LEAVES   AND   STEMS. 

The  leaves  are  the  most  valuable  part  of  alfalfa  and  the  stems  are 
least  valuable.  The  relative  amount  of  leaves  and  stems  in  the  alfalfa 
cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity  was  determined  by  taking  a  handful 
of  the  alfalfa  sample  as  soon  as  it  was  wilted  and  separating  the  leaves 
from  the  stems  by  stripping.  As  soon  as  thoroughly  dry  the  relative 
weights  were  determined.  The  following  figures  show  the  averages  from 
several  determinations  made  on  each  stage  of  cutting: 

TABLE  No.  37.     Relative  per  cent  of  leaves  and  stems  cut  at  different  stages. 


STAGE  OF  MATURITY. 

Relative 
per  cent 
of  leaves. 

Relative 
per  cent 
of  stems. 

Cut  in  bud  

57  42 

42  43 

Cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  

56  40 

43  61 

Cut  in  full  bloom  
Cut  in  seed  formation  

51.54 
43.50 

48.22 
56.51 

Up  to  and  beyond  the  time  of  full  bloom  the  leaves  make  up  more  than 
half  of  the  plant.  It  is  probable  that  the  alfalfa  cut  at  the  time  of  seed 
formation  had  lost  a  large  part  of  the  leaves  before  it  was  cut.  The 
comparative  amounts  of  constituents  present  in  the  leaves  and  stems 
are  shown  by  the  following  figures: 

TABLE  No.  38.    Percentage  of  feeding  constituents  in  leaves  and  stems  of  alfalfa  cut  at  different 

stages  of  maturity. 

LEAVES. 


STAGE  OF  MATURITY. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Cut  in  bud  

10.78 

26.17 

13.64 

36.01 

3.27 

Cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  

10.52 

24.16 

14.06 

37.40 

4  06 

Cut  in  full  bloom  

9.10 

22.10 

13.66 

39.32 

5.72 

Cut  in  seed  

8.90 

21.25 

14.55 

39.66 

5.48 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


407 


STEMS. 


Cut  in  bud  

8.78 

12.57 

33  .  54 

33.92 

1.23 

Cut  in  one-tenth  bloom  

7.97 

10.63 

35.12 

32.97 

1.33 

Cut  in  full  bloom 

7  02 

9  72 

36  33 

34  93 

1  22 

Cut  in  seed  

7.12 

10  .  22 

36.41 

34  .86 

1.39 

The  leaves  contain  a  higher  per  cent  of  ash,  nitrogen-free  extract  and 
ether  extract  than  the  stems.  They  also  contain  more  than  twice  as 
much  protein. 

CONSTITUENTS   OF   ALFALFA   HAY   AND   ALFALFA   MEAL. 

Grinding  alfalfa  hay  into  meal  does  not  change  its  chemical  composi- 
tion. A  load  of  alfalfa  hay  was  sampled  before  grinding,  and  then  a 
sample  was  taken  from  the  meal  after  grinding.  These  two  sample?^ 
were  as  near  alike  in  composition  as  two  samples  usually  are  when  both 
are  taken  from  the  same  lot  of  hay  or  the  same  lot  of  meal. 

TABLE  No.  39.     Feeding  constituents  in  alfalfa  hay,  and  alfalfa  meal  made  from  the  same  hay. 


Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Alfalfa  hay 

10  28 

8  54 

15  47 

32  71 

31  40 

1  61 

Alfalfa  meal  

9.78 

8.53 

15.10 

32.42 

32.70 

1.48 

THE   FEEDING   CONSTITUENTS   IN    CORN    SILAGE,    KAFIR    SILAGE,   AND 
SORGHUM    SILAGE. 

Silage  is  a  feed  that  goes  well  with  alfalfa.  The  average  composition 
of  a  number  of  samples  of  corn  silage,  kafir  silage  and  sorghum  silage 
are  given  here.  The  first  set  of  figures  is  calculated  to  a  10  per  cent 
moisture  basis  in  order  to  be  more  comparable  with  dry  alfalfa  hay.  The 
second  set  is  calculated  to  a  70  per  cent  moisture  basis.  This  is  the  usual 
moisture  content  of  silage.  The  protein  content  of  alfalfa  is  more  than 
twice  that  of  silage,  if  they  are  compared  on  the  same  moisture  basis. 
The  ash  and  crude  fiber  are  higher  in  alfalfa  than  in  silage,  while  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  ether  extract  are  lower. 

TABLE  No.  40.    Percentage  composition  of  corn  silage,  kafir  silage  and  sorghum  silage. 
10  PER  CENT  MOISTURE  BASIS. 


KIND  OF  SILAGE. 

Ash. 

Crude 
p/otein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Corn  silage  .  .  . 

5  27 

7  73 

20  39 

52  73 

3  87 

Kafir  silage 

7  96 

5  76 

30  74 

41  71 

3  84 

Sorghum  silage  

5.19 

6.35 

24.41 

49.14 

4.09 

70  PER  CENT  MOISTURE  BASIS. 


Corn  silage  

1  76 

2  58 

6  80 

17  58 

1  16 

Kafir  silage 

2  65 

1  92 

10  25 

13  90 

1  28 

Sorghum  silage  

1.73 

2.12 

8.14 

16.38 

1.36 

408 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


BALANCED 

RATION 
HAS    BOTH 
COLUMNS 
EQUAL     IN 
LENGTH 


HOW  DIFFERENT  FOODS    BALANCE 

SHOWING  THE  EXCE55  OR  LACK  OF  PROTEIN 

A    BALANCED    RATION    REQUIRES     6    TO    7    TIMES     AS    MUCH    STARCH,  SUGAR, 

FIBER    AND    FAT     AS     PROTEIN       THEREFORE      THIS     COLUMN      IS     MADE 

THAT    MUCH     WIDER 

TO    MAKE     A     BALANCED      RATION      OF      THESE       FOODS,     COMBINE     THEM 
SO    THAT      BOTH      COLUMNS      OF      THE      MIXTURE       AKE        EQUAL 


HEAVY    BLACK     LINE     INDICATES       PROTEIN  - 
CROSS  -SECTION    LINES    INDICATE    STARCH, 
SUGAR,    FIBE*     AND     FAT  - 


1 


w.  c.  PALMER 

N.  D.  FAKMCRS    INSTITUTES 


I 


1 


1 


i 


i 


I 


1 


I 


BALANCED         ALFALFA  BRAN 


OATS         CLOVER        BARLEY          CORN        ENSILAGE    CORN  FODDER  TIMOTHY      OAT  .STRAW 


PROTEIN  IS  THE  TISSUE  BUILDING  NUTRIENT- IT  CAN  ALSO    BE  MADE    INTO    HEAT   ENERGY   AND  FAT 
STARCH,  SUGAR.   FIBER  AND    FAT  CAN   ONLY    BE    MADE     INTO    HEAT   ENERGY   AND  FAT 

FIG.  351.     A  graphic  illustration  of  alfalfa's  place  as  a  ration  balancer. 
[Courtesy  North  Dakota  Experiment -Station.] 


The  chemical  constituents  in  some  of  the  feeding  stuffs  available  to 
the  Kansas  farmer  are  given  here  for  comparison  with  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  has  more  protein  than  most  of  the  concentrates  except  cotton- 
seed meal.  Some  samples  of  alfalfa,  notably  that  cut  in  the  early  stages, 
have  more  protein  than  wheat  bran  and  wheat  shorts.  Ordinary  alfalfu 

TABLE  No.  41.     Percentage  composition  of  some  American  feeding- stuffs.* 
CONCENTRATES. 


KIND. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

Corn  .    ... 

10  60 

1  50 

10  30 

2  20 

70  40 

5  00 

Wheat  
Oats 

10.50 
10  40 

1.80 
3  20 

11.90 
11  40 

1.80 
10  80 

71.90 
59  40 

2.10 
4  80 

Cottonseed  meal 

7  00 

6  60 

45  30 

6  30 

24  60 

10  20 

Wheat  bran  
Wheat  shorts  

11.90 
11.20 

5.80 
4.40 

15.40 
16.90 

9.00 
6.20    ' 

53.90 
56.20 

4.00 
5.10 

Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


409 


ROUGHAGE. 


Fodder  corn  

42.20 

2.70 

4.50 

14.30 

34.70 

1.60 

Corn  stover 

40  50 

3  40 

3  80 

19.70 

31.50 

1.10 

Hay  from  mixed  grasses.  . 

15.30 

7  77 

5.50 
7  85 

7.40 
5  34 

27.20 
29  89 

42.10 
46  93 

2.50 
2  21 

Timothy 

13  20 

4  40 

5  90  . 

29  00 

45  00 

2  50 

Red  clover 

15  30 

6  20 

12  30 

24.80 

38  10 

3  30 

Cow  peas  

10.50 
9  60 

8.90 
4  20 

14.20 
3  40 

21.20 
38  10 

42.60 
43  40 

2.60 
1  30 

Oat  straw  

9.20 

5.10 

4.00 

37.00 

42.40 

2.30 

*These  figures,  except  for  prairie  hay,  are  taken  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 

hay  has  about  the  same  protein  content  as  wheat  bran  and  wheat  shorts. 
Alfalfa  has  a  higher  protein  content  than  the  hay  from  red  clover  and 
cow  peas.  The  high  protein  content  of  alfalfa  makes  it  the  best  supple- 
ment to  the  low-protein-content  roughage  feeds,  as  well  as  to  some  of 
the  concentrates,  such  as  corn. 


TABLE  No.  42.    Percentage  composition  of  alfalfa  cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity.    10  per  cent 

moisture  basis. 

CUT  IN  BUD. 


CUTTING  NUMBER. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract. 

1                                   

10  04 

18  76 

23  84 

34  54 

281 

2  
3  

11.93 
10  60 

19.43 
19  86 

24.34 
23  90 

33.39 

33  77 

1.27 
2  05 

4  

10  49 

18  17 

22  42 

36  32 

2  81 

5 

9  35 

21   10 

20  53 

37  Tl 

6  •  

10  76 

20  59 

20  05 

35  20 

31Q 

Average  

10.53 

19.65 

22  .  50 

35  .  06 

2.36 

CUT  IN  ONE-TENTH  BLOOM. 


1 

9  14 

17  17 

25  79 

qq    -ID 

2  

9  70 

17  90 

25  93 

qx    7-1 

3  

10  20 

16  36 

24  13 

35  73 

4.  .    . 

8  77 

20  05 

20  57 

5  .  .  

10  12 

20  41 

21  49 

Average  

9.59 

18.38 

23  .  58 

35.41 

2.93 

410 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


CUT  IN  FULL  BLOOM. 


1  

8.89 

14.39 

30.30 

33.20 

3.24 

2 

8  42 

17  11 

23  90 

36  31 

4  23 

3                          

9.31 

16  00 

22  18 

39  76 

2  37 

4  

8.54 

17.69 

23.68 

35  02 

5.26 

.      Average  

8.79 

16.30 

25.01 

36.07 

3.77 

CUT  IN  SEED. 


1                                             .  .     .   . 

6  64 

13.55 

29.91 

37.26 

2.29 

2  

7.25 

14.15 

25.90 

39.64 

2.93 

3  

8.72 

17.22 

23.77 

35.21 

4.81 

Average  

7.54 

14.97 

26.53 

37.37 

3.34 

ALFALFA  AS  A  FEED  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 

By  W.  A.  COCHEL,  Animal  Husbandman,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

The  grain,  hay  and  grass  which  occupies  over  90  per  cent  of  the  land 
in  Kansas  are  crops  which  are  especially  adaptable  to  the  production  of 
fat  and  energy,  all  of  them  being  decidedly  deficient  in  proteins  and  the 
kind  of  ash  which  is  necessary  for  normal  growth  in  meat-making  an- 


FIG.  352.     A  rack  for  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  cattle,  in  use  on  the  W.  J.  Tod  ranch, 
Wabaunsee  County. 

imals.  When  animals  are  produced  without  legumes  or  other  feeds  that 
are  native  to  or  widely  cultivated  in  the  state,  without  the  purchase  of 
the  by-products  of  mills  and  factories,  they  are  slow  to  mature,  under- 
sized, fine  in  bone,  and  deficient  in  thick,  heavy  muscles  which  give  ex- 
treme value  to  their  carcasses.  Under  such  methods  of  management  they 
usually  fail  to  increase  in  weight  in  winter,  in  many  instances  actually 
weigh  less  in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall.  The  result  is  that  the  first 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  411 

month  to  six  weeks  in  the  spring  they  utilize  in  making  up  for  their  lack 
of  progress  in  winter.  Calves  handled  in  this  manner  usually  weigh 
from  400  to  500  pounds  when  weaned  in  the  fall  of  the  year;  from  450 
to  500  in  the  spring;  gain  250  pounds  their  second  summer;  remain 
stationary  the  second  winter;  make  950  to  1000  pounds  the  third  sum- 
mer; going  through  this  process,  until  finally,  at  the  age  of  four  years, 
they  are  ready  for  market  at  1200  to  1300  pounds  as  native  grass-fat 
cattle,  or  heavy  feeders  suitable  for  60  to  90  days  of  corn  feeding  to  get 
them  ready  for  market. 

Increased  weights  are  sometimes  secured  by  the  use  of  heavy-boned, 
rugged  bulls  of  the  ton  type;  sometimes  by  the  purchase  of  quantities  of 
high-priced  commercial  feeds  rich  in  protein,  such  as  linseed  meal  or 
cottonseed  cake;  sometimes  by  preserving  the  rougher  and  coarser  ma- 
terials in  succulent  form  in  the  silo.  But  the  true  stockman  not  only 
utilizes  these  methods,  but  considers  them  as  secondary  in  importance  to 
alfalfa,  the  king  of  all  forage  crops,  which  gives  to  cattle  the  size,  the 
capacity,  the  condition  of  coat  and  skin  which  indicates  thrift,  bone  and 
maximum  growth  at  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  cash  and  of  food 
nutrients  in  the  production  of  increase  in  live  weight. 

On  soils  and  under  climatic  conditions  where  it  can  be  successfully 
grown,  alfalfa  produces  the  greatest  yield  of  protein  per  acre  of  any  crop 
which  the  farmer  or  the  scientist  has  yet  discovered.  In  dry  years  it  is 
the  last  to  recognize  a  deficiency  in  moisture  and  the  quickest  to  respond 
to  the  combination  of  rain  and  sunshine.  In  wet  years  it  may  be  de- 
cidedly damaged  in  the  curing  process;  yet  when  winter  comes,  even  the 
moldy,  black  and  dusty  hay  yet  contains  sufficient  nourishment  and  a 
vestige  of  palatability  which  enables  a  stock  cow  or  a  stocker  or  feeder 
steer  to  amply  supply  all  of  their  needs  as  measured  by  digestible  nu- 
trients. During  the  winter  of  1915-'16  thousands  of  tons  of  such  feeds 
were  utilized  by  the  farmers  of  the  state  in  wintering  beef  cattle  which 
would  otherwise  have  had  little  value  except  as  an  addition  to  the  supply 
of  plant  food  in  the  form  of  decayed  vegetation  or  manure.  Its  cash  value 
would  have  been  much  less  than  the  expenses  incurred  in  getting  it  to 
market.  Yet  even  at  its  worst,  alfalfa  is  a  desirable  addition  to  the 
usual  supply  of  roughage  on  the  farm. 

Although  alfalfa  is  a  boon  to  the  live-stock  farmer  under  adverse  con- 
ditions, its  real  or  true  value  is  appreciated  when  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  such  as  to  result  in  a  maximum  yield  of  hay  of  the  very  best 
quality.  The  animal  husbandry  department  at  the  Agricultural  College 
has  found  that  one  ton  of  good  alfalfa  will  replace  307  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  and  \Vz  tons  of  silage  in  wintering  beef  calves,  having  a  com- 
mercial value  at  the  present  time  of  $10.30,  which  would  be  decidedly  in- 
creased when  roughage  is  limited.  An  ideal  method  of  producing  cattle 
for  the  feed  lot  is  to  use  alfalfa  and  silage,  using  an  abundance  of  straw 
for  bedding.  With  these  feeds  available  an  acre  of  alfalfa  and  an  acre 
of  silage  will  winter  four  mature  breeding  cows  in  excellent  condition. 
The  same  acreage  of  crops  will  winter  ten  calves  in  such  manner  as  to 
enable  them  to  gain  150  pound  each,  replacing  entirely  all  the  purchased 
feeds  from  the  system  of  farming.  Fed  in  this  manner,  calves  would 


412  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

weigh  600  pounds  at  one  year  of  age,  gain  200  pounds  on  grass,  200 
pounds  as  yearlings  and  200  pounds  the  summer  when  they  were  two- 
year-olds,  making  them  weigh  1200  pounds  when  approximately  30 
months  old,  instead  of  at  an  age  of  48  months  when  they  are  wintered 
without  alfalfa.  The  result  is  that  the  use  of  alfalfa  as  a  roughage  dur- 
ing winter  will  eliminate  from  12  to  18  months  time  in  bringing  a  steer 
up  to  a  weight  of  1200  pounds,  as  compared  with  an  attempt  to  develop 
him  on  other  nonleguminous  roughages  which  do  not  permit  of  an  in- 
crease in  live  weight  during  winter. 

When  fattening  cattle  on  corn  and  alfalfa  hay,  as  compared  with 
corn  and  prairie  hay,  or  corn  and  timothy,  the  use  .of  alfalfa  results  in 
more  rapid  gains,  higher  dressing  percentages,  higher  selling  value, 
and  a  carcass  which  is  more  acceptable  because  of  better  distribution 
of  fat  within  the  muscle  and  more  even  distribution  of  covering  of  the 
entire  carcass.  In  the  feed  lot  alfalfa  furnishes  a  portion  of  the  protein 
usually  purchased  in  the  form  of  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal,  thus  re- 
ducing the  expense  of  the  ration  without  influencing  the  behavior  of  the 
cattle  adversely. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among  the  cattle  feeders 
as  to  the  comparative  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay  cut  in  different  stages 
of  growth  and  cured  in  such  manner  as  to  secure  the  various  shades  of 
color,  such  as  pea-green,  dark,  and  brown  alfalfa.  Undoubtedly  the  best 
grade  of  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  cattle  would  be  that  which  comes 
from  the  fourth  cutting  and  is  cured  in  such  manner  as  to  classify  as 
pea-green  alfalfa  hay.  This  cutting  is  usually  more  palatable,  has  less 
fiber  in  it  and  carries  a  larger  percentage  of  leaves  than  any  other  cut- 
ting. The  second  choice  among  the  cattle  feeders  is  for  what  is  usually 
termed  brown  alfalfa.  This  grade  comes  from  stacking  the  hay  before 
it  is  thoroughly  cured,  with  the  result  that  it  heats  and  turns  brown  in 
the  stack.  Apparently  this  method  of  curing  softens  the  fiber  and  re- 
tains practically  all  the  leaves  that  are  on  the  hay.  On  account  of  its 
containing  such  a  large  percentage  of  moisture  it  is  usually  not  profit- 
able for  cattlemen  to  purchase  this  hay  by  weight,  but  rather  by  meas- 
ure. These  two  grades  of  hay  should  be  very  largely  used  for  finishing 
cattle  for  market.  The  lower  grades  from  the  first,  second  and  third 
cuttings  can  be  used  for  the  maintenance  of  breeding  cattle  or  for 
roughing  stockers  and  feeders  through  the  winter. 

During  the  past  two  years  there  has  been  a  considerable  quantity  of 
alfalfa  all  over  the  state  that  has  been  badly  damaged  by  rains  at  har- 
vest. The  result  has  been  that  the  only  method  of  securing  a  market  for 
this  hay  was  to  purchase  thin  cattle  and  allow  them  access  to  all  of  the 
hay  they  will  eat  during  the  winter.  While  there  are  no  experimental 
results  which  indicate  the  true  value  of  this  hay,  yet  the  results  secured 
under  practical  conditions  indicate  that  the  apparent  damage  is  very 
much  greater  than  the  real  damage  to  its  feeding  quality.  During  the 
winters  of  1913-'14  and  1914-'15  the  Hays  Station  used  damaged  alfalfa 
and  kafir  stover  for  wintering  mature  cattle  with  excellent  results. 
Both  of  these  feeds  were  in  such  condition  that  little  or  no  commercial 
value  could  have  been  given  to  them  in  that  section  of  the  state. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


413 


N 


TT/x? 


414  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

For  mature  cattle  a  ration  made  up  of  corn  or  kafir,  and  alfalfa  hay, 
will  give  excellent  results  for  fattening  purposes.  When  younger  cattle 
are  full  fed  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  such  a  ration  a  limited  amount 
of  commercial  concentrates,  such  as  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal  or  cake. 

TABLE  No.   43.     Rations  for  beef  animals,  which  include  alfalfa. 
Suggested  by  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

FATTENING  CATTLE  (for  each  1000  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily): 
'    I.       5  Ibs.  alfalfa. 

15  Ibs.  silage. 

2  Ibs.  cottonseed  cake. 

16  Ibs.  corn. 
II.    10  Ibs.  alfalfa. 

18  Ibs.  corn  or  kafir. 

2  Ibs.  cottonseed  cake. 

STOCKEE  CATTLE  (for  each  1000  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily) : 
I.    15  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay. 

15  Ibs.  silage. 

BREEDING  CATTLE  (for  each  1000  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily) : 
I.    15  Ibs.   alfalfa. 

1  Ib.  linseed  meal. 
10  Ibs.  silage. 
5  Ibs.  straw. 

WINTERING  CALVES  (for  each  500  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily)  : 
I.       5  Ibs.  alfalfa. 
10  Ibs.  silage. 

1  Ib.  cottonseed  meal. 

FATTENING  CALVES  (for  each  500  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily) : 
I.      4  Ibs.  alfalfa. 
8  Ibs.  silage. 
1  Ib.  linseed  meal. 
7  Ibs.   corn  or  kafir. 

During  the  winter  of  1915-'16  the  animal  husbandry  department  of 
the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College  fed  ninety  head  of  experimental 
calves,  all  of  which  received  alfalfa  hay  as  a  portion  of  their  roughage. 
After  allowing  60  cents  per  bushel  for  corn,  $1  per  cwt.  for  kafir,  and 
$3  per  ton  for  silage,  the  steers  showed  an  average  profit  of  $12.50  per 
head  through  a  six  months'  feeding  period.  It  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  have  secured  such  results  by  the  substitution  of  any  other  rough- 
age for  alfalfa. 

Very  satisfactory  results  have  been  secured  from  grinding  alfalfa, 
mixing  it  with  molasses,  and  using  this  mixture  as  a  source  of  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  food  nutrients  for  both  fattening  cattle  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  breeding  cattle.  The  advisability  of  using  this  par- 
ticular combination  will  depend  upon  the  relative  cost  of  grinding  and 
the  comparative  cost  of  molasses  with  other  feeds  which  could  be  used 
as  a  substitute  for  same. 

The  main  advantage  which  alfalfa  has  over  any  other  crop  in  Kansas 
is  that  it  will  produce  a  larger  yield  per  acre  of  roughage  that  is  rich  in 
protein  than  any  other  crop.  That  it  maintains  and  increases  the 
supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen  in  the  soils  of  the  state,  both  of  which 
are  fundamental  in  crop  production.  That  it  is  palatable  and  nutritious, 
regardless  of  the  season  in  which  it  is  grown.  That  it  serves  as  a  most 
excellent  supplement  to  the  main  crops  which  are  produced  in  the  state, 
such  as  corn,  sorghums  and  prairie  hay,  and  it  furnishes  not  only  pro- 
tein for  the  development  of  young  animals,  but  also  is  an  ideal  constit- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  415 

uent  of  the  ration  for  breeding  animals.  There  is  no  other  crop  that  we 
grow,  when  properly  used,  that  will  produce  as  much  growth  in  the 
same  length  of  time  as  alfalfa  supplemented  with  corn  and  other  feeds 
that  are  rich  in  fat-  and  energy-making  elements.  (See  "Beef  Cattle," 
in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  FEED  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

By  O.  E.  REED,  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Alfalfa  is  generally  conceded  to  be  the  choicest  of  all  roughage  for 
dairy  cows.  This  fact  is  due  to  the  protein  and  mineral  matter  con- 
tained in  the  alfalfa  plant.  In  many  sections  of  the  country,  particu- 
larly in  the  irrigated  sections,  alfalfa  is  the  sole  feed  for  large  herds  of 
dairy  cattle.  It  is  fed  green  in  summer  and  as  dry  roughage  in  winter. 
Mr.  William  Bigger,  a  dairyman  near  Topeka,  and  other  farmers  in 
Kansas,  have  followed  this  system  with  good  results.  The  fact  that 
alfalfa  contains  a  high  percentage  of  protein  makes  it  an  excellent 
foundation  for  the  dairy  ration.  Protein  is  the  most  expensive  feed 
element  on  the  market,  and  when  it  can  be  grown  on  the  farm  in  the 
form  of  alfalfa  or  other  legumes  the  feed  bill  for  dairy  cattle  is  con- 
siderably reduced.  When  one  is  forced  to  buy  protein  he  must  purchase 
such  feed  as  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  etc.,  and  these  feeds  are  the 
most  concentrated  feeds  that  we  have  on  the  market;  hence  we  may 
conclude  that  the  farmer  who  can  grow  alfalfa  and  other  leguminous  hay 
can  produce  milk  and  butter  fat  more  economically  than  the  farmer 
who  lives  in  the  country  where  such  crops  can  not  be  grown.  A  number 
of  experiments  have  been  conducted  relative  to  the  feeding  value  of 
alfalfa.  Alfalfa  compares  very  closely  to  wheat  bran. 

TABLE  No.  44.     The  digestible  nutrients  of  100  pounds  of  wheat  bran  and  alfalfa. 


Protein. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fat. 

Wheat  bran  

11  9 

42  0 

2.5 

Alfalfa  

10.5 

40.5 

0.9 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  alfalfa  hay,  or  ground 
alfalfa,  for  bran.  At  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station  it  has  been  found 
that  on  substituting  ground  alfalfa  hay  for  the  same  weight  of  bran,  that 
the  cows  decreased  from  3  to  6  per  cent  in  their  milk  flow.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania Experiment  Station  also  found  that  the  cows  lost  about  5  per  cent 
when  the  alfalfa  was  substituted  for  wheat  bran.  These  trials  show  that 
alfalfa  is  nearly  as  useful  as  the  same  amount  of  wheat  bran.  When 
the  cost  of  the  two  feeds  is  considered,  alfalfa  furnishes  digestible  nu- 
trients much  cheaper  than  the  bran.  At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
a  trial  was  conducted  with  dairy  cows  to  show  the  comparative  feeding 


416 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


value  of  timothy  and  alfalfa  hay.    The  following  table  shows  the  results 
of  this  trial : 

TABLE  No.  45.     Comparative  feeding  value  of  timothy  and  alfalfa  to  dairy  cows. 


Hay  fed. 

Milk  per 
cow, 
pounds. 

Hay  fed. 

Milk  per 
cow, 
pounds. 

December  25  to  February  18.  .. 

Timothy. 
Alfalfa  .  .  . 

1531.7 
1667.7 

Alfalfa.  .. 
Timothy. 

1475.1 
1191.1 

February  25  to  April  22  

Increase  on  alfalfa 

136.0 
1224.0 

284.0 
2556.0 

Total  increase  in  each  lot  (9  cows)  

Increase  in  lot  1                                                            12 

24   X  $1-60   =  $19.58 
56   X     1.60    =     40.89 

Increase  in  lot  2  ...                                                   .21 

Total  increase  on  alfalfa  hay , 


$60.47 


The  value  of  the  milk  produced  was  figured  at  $1.60  per  hundred 
pounds,  the  average  market  price.  Five  tons  of  alfalfa  were  fed  during 
the  trial,  and  this  amount  of  hay  produced  $60.47  worth  more  milk  than 
timothy  hay,  and  we  can  conclude  that  alfalfa  hay,  according  to  this  trial, 
is  worth  $12.09  more  per  ton  than  timothy,  when  milk  is  selling  at  $1.60 
per  hundred  pounds. 

Very  few  farmers  realize  the  importance  of  good  roughage  in  the  dairy 
cow's  ration.  No  other  part  of  the  feed  plays  so  important  a  part  as  the 
roughage,  and  principally  the  hay,  that  an  animal  receives.  In  making  up 
a  ration  for  milk  cows  one  should  begin  with  the  roughage  and  give  them 
all  they  will  clean  up  nicely.  The  kind  and  condition  of  the  hay  and  other 
roughage  fed  will  determine  the  amount  and  kind  of  grain  to  be  fed. 
Where  alfalfa  hay  is  used  as  the  roughage  the  principal  grain  used  may 
be  made  largely  of  corn  or  kafir  or  similar  grain.  Alfalfa  and  corn  make 
a  good  ration  for  the  average  milch  cow.  It  contains  the  proper  nutrients 
and  is  a  balanced  ration.  Cows  giving  a  large  quantity  of  milk  should 
have  other  grain. 

Following  are  several  good  rations  with  alfalfa  as  the  principal  rough- 
age. The  amounts  given  in  these  rations  are  calculated  as  the  daily 
amount  used  by  a  cow  weighing  about  1000  pounds  and  producing  25 
pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk : 

TABLE  No.  46.     Rations  for  dairy  cows,  which  include  alfalfa,  in  pounds. 


Alfalfa 

• 
12 

Alfalfa 

10 

Silage 

35 

5 

Corn  chop 

4 

Corn  chop           

....      4 

Bran 

2 

Gluten  feed 

1 

Linseed  meal  

1 

Alfalfa 

18 

Alfalfa 

18 

Corn  chop  
Bran  .  •  .           •   •           »  •  • 

4 

Corn-and-cob  meal  
Cottonseed  meal 

5 
2 

Linseed  meal  

1 

The  second,  third  and  fourth  crops  of  alfalfa  hay  are  considered  the 
best  for  dairy  cattle.  The  popularity  of  alfalfa  as  a  dairy  feed  is  also 
emphasized  by  the  fact  that  many  mills  grind  the  alfalfa  and  sell  it  in 
100-pound  bags,  dairymen  being  the  principal  consumers  of  such  feed. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


417 


PASTURING   ALFALFA. 

Many  farmers  pasture  alfalfa  with  their  cows.  Alfalfa  is  usually 
the  first  green  crop  in  the  spring  and  the  last  one  in  the  fall,  and  many 
make  use  of  this  early  and  late  pasturage.  There  is  quite  a  risk  attached 
to  the  grazing  of  cows  on  alfalfa,  but  where  it  is  properly  handled  the 
losses  are  very  slight.  Cattle  should  not  be  turned  on  the  alfalfa  unless 
they  have  previously  had  access  to  some  dry  feed.  If  the  cows  are  put 
on  the  pasture  in  an  empty,  hungry  condition  they  gorge  themselves  with 
the  hay,  and  usually  bloat,  and  in  some  cases  fatalities  result. 

SOILING   ALFALFA. 

In  communities  where  soiling  is  practiced  it  is  found  that  alfalfa  fits 
into  the  soiling  system  exceptionally  well.  It  is  one  of  the  first  crops  to 
be  fed  in  the  spring  and  furnishes  a  more  continuous  supply  all  summer 
than  any  other  soiling  crop.  (See  "Dairy  cattle,"  in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  A  FEED  FOR  SHEEP. 

By  A.  M.  PATERSON,  Assistant  Animal  Husbandman,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Less  use  has  been  made  of  alfalfa  as  a  sheep  feed  than  for  any  other 
class  of  live  stock.  However,  experience  and  experiments  have  both 
shown  that  alfalfa  is  a  very  valuable  sheep  feed.  It  is  imperative  that 
alfalfa  as  a  feed  for  sheep  become  more  generally  appreciated  in  Kansas. 

When  alfalfa  is  pastured  great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  bloat, 
which  may  cause  serious  loss.  After  alfalfa  has  become  mature,  or  is 
mixed  with  other  grasses,  the  danger  is  somewhat  eliminated.  However, 
care  should  be  taken  at  all  times.  Before  the  sheep  are  turned  on  alfalfa 
pasture  they  should  be  fed  a  large  amount  of  dry  feed,  such  as  hay  or 
fodder,  and  turned  out  to  graze  when  the  alfalfa  is  free  from  dew  or 


m     fj§ 


Fid.  354.    A  rack  for  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  sheep. —  [Courtesy  Breeder's  Gazette.] 


418 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


moisture  of  any  kind.  The  sheep  should  be  left  on  the  alfalfa  only  a 
short  time,  and  the  length  of  time  increased  each  day  until  the  sheep  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  feed.  Flock  masters  have  found,  as  a  rule,  that 
it  is  never  safe  to  give  sheep  free  access  to  alfalfa  pasture. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  adapted  to  the  feeding  of  sheep  because  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  a  very  cheap  source  of  protein,  and  also  supplies  enough  bulk 
to  maintain  the  breeding  flock  satisfactorily  during  the  winter  months 
on  alfalfa  alone.  However,  best  results  are  secured  if  some  grain  is 
fed  with  it. 

The  amount  of  alfalfa  fed  will  depend  upon  the  amount  and  price  of 
the  hay.  When  alfalfa  is  cheap  and  plentiful  and  other  roughages 
scarce  the  sole  ration  for  the  flock  could  consist  of  alfalfa  hay.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  hay  is  scarce  and  high-priced,  the  ration  could  be 
partially  made  up  of  straw,  fodder  and  roughages  of  like  nature.  A 
comparison  of  alfalfa  hay  with  other  roughages  for  sheep-feeding  pur- 


FIG.  355.   Another  rack  for  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  sheep. —  [Courtesy  Breeder's  Gazette.] 

poses  shows  many  advantages  in  favor  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  this  is 
especially  true  in  Kansas,  where  alfalfa  is  grown  so  extensively. 

In  five  trials,  averaging  100  days,  where  alfalfa  was  compared  with 
timothy  and  prairie  hay  in  lamb-fattening  experiments,  the  lots  fed 
alfalfa  hay  made  larger  and  cheaper  gains  and  required  less  feed  per 
100  pounds  gain  than  did  the  lots  fed  timothy  and  prairie  hay. 

The  comparative  value  of  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  as  a  roughage  for 
sheep  is  a  much-disputed  point.  However,  tests  have  shown  that  there 
was  a  slight  difference  in  favor  of  alfalfa  hay.  One  test  which  was  con- 
ducted for  several  years  showed  that  the  sheep  fed  clover  made  a  little 
larger  gains  than  those  fed  alfalfa,  but  the  alfalfa  lots  showed  a  supe- 
rior dressed  carcass. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  419 

Experiments  conducted  at  the  Kansas  Station  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive value  of  alfalfa  and  cowpea  hay  gave  the  following  results:  The 
lambs  fed  alfalfa  hay  made  more  rapid  and  less  expensive  gains,  showed 
the  same  finish  and  a  much  greater  profit  than  did  the  lambs  fed  cow- 
pea  hay. 

TABLE   No.   47.      Rations  for  sheep,   which  include  alfalfa.      Sug- 
gested by  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

FATTENING  LAMBS,  weighing  from  50  to  85  pounds  (daily)  :* 
I.    1.2     Ibs.  corn. 

.16  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 
1.5     Ibs.  alfalfa  hay. 
1.25  Ibs.  silage. 
II.    1.5     Ibs.  kafir. 

.  16  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 
1.5     Ibs.  alfalfa. 
1.28  Ibs.  silage. 
III.    1.2     Ibs.  corn  or  kafir. 

.16  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 
2.5     Ibs.  alfalfa. 
BREEDING  EWES  (daily)  :f 
I.     %   lb.  corn. 
%   lb.  bran. 
2  to  4  Ibs.  alfalfa. 
Some  other  cheap  roughage. 

Sheep,  as  well  as  other  classes  of  live  stock,  show  a  decided  prefer- 
ence for  a  certain  kind  of  alfalfa  hay.  To  secure  best  results  hay  for 
sheep  must  be  fine  and  leafy.  Ordinarily  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa  is 
the  best  if  it  is  cured  and  handled  in  such  a  manner  that  all  the  leaves 
are  saved.  (See  "Sheep,"  in  index.) 


ACUTE  BLOATING  OF  THE  RUMEN. 

By  R.  R.  DYKSTRA,  Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

SYNONYMS.  Gaseous  indigestion,  hoven,  bloating  of  the  paunch,  tym- 
panites. 

DEFINITION.  This  is  an  abnormal  condition  occurring  in  cattle,  sheep, 
and  more  rarely  in  goats.  It  consists  in  an  unusually  large  accumula- 
tion of  gas  in  the  first  stomach,  or  rumen,  causing  an  excessive  disten- 
tion  of  that  organ,  and  frequently  associated  with  paralysis  of  its  walls. 
The  condition  may  be  primary  or  it  may  be  secondary,  meaning  that  it  is 
due  to  a  disease  of  some  other  organ. 

CAUSE.  It  is  usually  the  result  of  eating  very  large  quantities  of 
easily  fermenting  feed,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  vetches,  peas,  buckwheat, 
or  it  may  also  take  place  following  the  ingestion  of  other  green  feeds, 
such  as  leaves  of  cabbage,  beets,  young  potatoes,  etc.  Such  feeds  are 
especially  dangerous  if  they  are  at  all  wet  with  dew  or  frosted.  Second- 
ary bloating,  which  is  almost  always  chronic  in  character,  is  frequently 

*  These  rations  are  based  on  the  average  amount  of  feed  fed  daily  for  a  period  of  80 
to  100  days.  However,  if  these  rations  are  fed  the  lambs  should  be  started  slowly  and 
gradually  increased  to  full  feed. 

t  The  amount  of  grain  and  alfalfa  hay  for  breeding  ewes  will  depend  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  the  animals.  When  ewes  come  into  winter  quarters  in  good  condition  they  can  be 
wintered  on  roughage  alone,  consisting  of  alfalfa,  corn  stover,  etc.  Where  a  light  grain 
ration  is  added  the  ewes  will  raise  more  and  stronger  lambs  and  clip  a  heavier  fleece. 


420  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

a  symptom  of  tuberculosis.  In  this  condition  a  lymph  gland  located  just 
above  the  gullet  becomes  very  much  enlarged,  and  pressing  upon  the 
gullet  prevents  the  normal  belching  of  gas.  This  form  of  bloating  can 
be  positively  diagnosed  by  applying  the  tuberculin  test.  Occasionally  the 
condition  is  caused  by  a  sudden  change  from  dry  feed  to  green  feed  or 
to  feed  that  is  unusually  succulent. 

SYMPTOMS.  Usually  these  appear  very  suddenly.  There  is  an  in- 
creased rotundity  of  the  abdomen  and  symptoms  of  uneasiness  in  the 
animal.  The  most  characteristic  symptom  is  the  rapid  increase  in  size  of 
the  left  upper  flank,  which  will  protrude  so  greatly  that  its  apex  reaches 
the  level  or  may  often  be  higher  than  the  back.  The  abdominal  walls  are 
very  tense  and  can  be  pressed  in  only  with  difficulty,  and  at  once  protrude 
again  after  removal  of  the  pressure.  Striking  the  enlarged  region  with 
the  hand  produces  a  hollow,  resonant  sound.  The  animal  no  longer  chews 
its  cud,  but  stands  with  back  arched  and  feet  drawn  together.  In  the 
early  stages,  kicking  at  the  abdomen,  stamping,  and  switching  of  the  tail 
are  observed. 

As  the  distention  of  the  paunch  increases,  the  latter  organ  exerts  in- 
creasing pressure  against  other  organs  in  the  chest  cavity,  such  as  the 
lungs  and  heart.  This  causes  an  interference  with  the  normal  heart 
action  and  with  the  breathing,  so  that  the  latter  becomes  labored,  the 
animal  moans  and  pants  in  pain,  the  nostrils  are  widely  dilated,  the 
mouth  is  held  open,  the  tongue  protrudes,  and  saliva  dribbles  out  of  the 
mouth.  In  a  short  time  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nostril,  mouth,  etc., 
assumes  a  bluish-red  color,  which  indicates  that  suffocation  is  imminent. 

The  heart  action  is  interfered  with  to  a  considerable  extent,  so  that 
the  pulse  is  rapid,  gradually  becoming  uncountable  and  imperceptible. 
The  animal  soon  exhibits  symptoms  of  dizziness,  the  eyes  become  blood- 
shot, and  finally  the  victim  reels  and  staggers,  and  eventually  falls 
insensible. 

CAUSE  OF  DEATH.  Death  occurs  as  the  result  of  suffocation,  impaired 
heart  action,  or  absorption  of  the  poisonous  gases  contained  in  the 
paunch,  or  it  may  be  due  to  a  combination  of  these  agents.  If  the  body 
is  opened  immediately  after  death  we  may  find  that  the  paunch  has  been 
partially  ruptured,  and  in  some  -cases  the  diaphragm  is  ruptured.  In 
some  instances  rupture  of  the  heart  has  been  recorded,  and  we  always 
find  all  the  lesions  of  suffocation,  such  as  redness  of  the  lungs,  frothy 
fluid  in  the  lungs,  black,  tarry  blood,  and  redness  under  the  peritoneum 
and  pleura,  or  the  membranes  lining  the  abdominal  cavity  and  chest.  If 
the  paunch  is  opened  it  may  contain  either  a  large  amount  of  free  gas,  or 
the  gas  may  be  intimately  mixed  with  the  feed,  so  that  the  latter  is  of 
a  frothy  character. 

COURSE  OF  THE  DISEASE.  If  relief  is  not  offered  the  animal  may  die  in 
thirty  minutes  in  those  cases  in  which  the  formation  of  gas  is  very  rapid. 
In  other  cases  the  development  of  gas  is  slower,  there  is  frequent  belch- 
ing and  some  vomiting,  and  the  animal  frequently  recovers  without 
treatment. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  421 

PREVENTION.  Animals  should  never  be  turned  into  a  field  of  alfalfa, 
clover,  etc.,  when  the  latter  is  wet  with  dew  or  frost.  If  animals  have 
been  accustomed  to  other  feed  than  a  succulent  green  feed  they  should 
gradually  be  accustomed  to  new  feed  by  turning  them  out  into  the  field 
for  the  first  few  days  for  from  one-half  to  one  hour  periods,  and  they 
should  be  herded  so  as  to  detect  the  bloating  at  its  onset.  Doctor  Schoen- 
leber,  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  recommends  that  the 
animals  be  filled  up  on  dry  feed  before  turned  out  to  pasture.  These 
precautions  insure  that  only  a  small  amount  of  the  green  feed  will  be 
consumed.  It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  when  animals  have  been  gradually 
accustomed  to  such  feed  they  can  consume  large  quantities  of  it, 
wet  or  dry,  without  apparent  ill  results.  Animals  should  never  be  fed 
frozen  turnips  or  other  roots,  but  when  these  are  the  only  source  of 
feed  supply  the  feed  for  each  day  may  be  defrosted  by  being  stored 
inside  for  twenty-four  hours  or  longer,  and  then  fed  sparingly. 


FIG.  356.  Proper  position  of  the  operator  when  opening  the  paunch  to  permit  the 
escape  of  gas.  The  canula  and  trocar  is  passed  into  the  rumen  on  the  animal's  left 
side  in  the  center  of  the  hollow  of  the  upper  flank  or  at  a  point  equally  distant  from 
the  last  rib,  the  angle  of  the  haunch  and  the  backbone. 

CURATIVE  TREATMENT.  This  depends  largely  upon  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  gas 'is  forming  in  the  paunch.  In  case  the  distention  is  so 
severe  as  to  threaten  suffocation  the  animal  should  immediately 
have  the  paunch  opened  from  the  outside.  The  instrument  employed  for 
this  purpose  is  spoken  of  as  a  cattle  trocar  and  canula.  It  may  be  pur- 
chased for  about  $1  through  any  retail  druggist.  All  cattle  owners 
should  have  such  an  instrument  constantly  at  hand.  The  instrument  is 
passed  into  the  rumen  on  the  animal's  left  side  in  the  center  of  the 
hollow  of  the  upper  flank,  or  at  a  point  equally  distant  from  the  last 
rib,  the  angle  of  the  haunch  and  the  backbone.  (See  Fig.  356.)  If 


422  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

time  permits,  the  operative  area  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water 
and  then  rinsed  off  with  a  two  per  cent  watery  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
but  this  may  be  dispensed  with  in  urgent  cases.  The  operator  should 
stand  on  the  animal's  right  side,  reach  over  the  back,  place  the  instrument 
in  position,  directing  it  downward  and  forward,  or  toward  the  point  of 
the  elbow  of  the  right  front  limb,  and  with  a  sharp  blow  of  the  open  hand, 
cause  it  to  pass  into  the  paunch.  The  trocar  is  removed,  the  canula  or 
tube  remaining  in  position  until  all  the  gas  has  been  evacuated.  The 
operator,  by  standing  on  the  animal's  right  side,  avoids  the  danger  of  be- 
ing kicked  by  the  left  hind  limb,  which  is  always  lifted. 

Sometimes  instead  of  gas  issuing  from  the  canula,  a  greenish,  frothy 
substance  oozes  out  of  the  wound,  which  indicates  that  the  gas  is  inti- 
mately mixed  with  the  food.  In  these  cases  the  tube  should  be  withdrawn 
and  a  large  incision  made  into  the  paunch.  The  incision  should  be  about 
three  and  one-half  inches  long,  and  should  pass  completely  through  the 
wall  of  the  abdomen  and  paunch.  As  soon  as  this  has  been  done  the 
gaseous  food  will  issue  forth  more  or  less  forcibly.  It  is  advisable  to 
grasp  the  edges  of  the  incision  in  the  paunch  and  attach  them  to  the  edges 
of  the  incision  through  the  wall  of  the  abdomen  by  means  of  a  strong 
needle  and  a  piece  of  string,  because  otherwise  as  soon  as  the  greatest 
distention  has  been  relieved  the  paunch  will  fall  away  from  the  abdominal 
wall,  after  which  food  will  pass  from  the  paunch  into  the  abdominal 
cavity,  unless  it  is  prevented  by  sewing  the  incision  in  the  paunch  to  the 
incision  in  the  abdominal  wall.  The  string  may  be  removed  in  a  week  or 
ten  days,  as  permanent  adhesions  will  have  formed  by  this  time.  If  the 
food  is  too  coarse  to  escape  through  such  an  incision  without  assistance, 
then  a  long  spoon  or  the  operator's  hand  and  arm  may  be  introduced  into 
the  paunch,  removing  the  food  in  this  way.  It  is  not  advisable  to  remove 
all  of  the  food,  but  to  permit  one-third  of  the  contents  of  the  paunch  to 
remain,  as  otherwise  an  attack  of  fainting  with  a  fatal  termination  will 
result.  As  much  as  five  to  eight  pailfuls  may  frequently  be  removed.  If 
an  experienced  operator  is  at  hand,  and  the  operation  has  been  carefully 
performed,  it  is  probably  best  to  close  the  opening  in  the  paunch  and 
abdominal  wall  after  sufficient  feed  has  been  removed,  but  when  per- 
formed as  an  emergency  measure  by  an  inexperienced  person  it  is  prob- 
ably best  to  leave  the  wound  open,  washing  it  daily  with  an  antiseptic 
solution.  The  animal  should  be  kept  warmly  blanketed  for  some  time 
after  the  operation. 

When  cases  of  gaseous  indigestion  are  detected  in  their  beginning  the 
formation  of  gas  may  frequently  be  stopped  by  administering  a  drench 
consisting  of  the  following  ingredients : 

Turpentine 2  oz. 

Raw  linseed  oil 1  pint. 

If  raw  linseed  oil  is  not  at  hand,  six  tablespoonfuls  of  turpentine  may 
be  mixed  with  a  pint  of  milk.  This  medicine  will  not  affect  the  gas  which 
is  already  present,  but  will  stop  the  fermentation,  so  that  no  more  gas 
is  formed.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  owners  of  cattle  to  have  this  mixture 
constantly  on  hand,  so  that  it  may  be  used  in  cases  of  emergency.  Mild 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  423 

cases  of  this  condition  are  sometimes  treated  by  means  of  a  rope  passed 
over  the  head  to  hold  a  bit  in  the  mouth.  The  bit  is  usually  of  wood  and 
smeared  with  tar,  lard,  or  similar  substance.  This  makes  the  animal 
move  its  jaws  and  tongue  vigorously,  causing  saliva  to  pass  into  the 
gullet,  and  these  factors  favor  the  belching  of  gas. 

If  the  rumen  has  been  opened  the  fermentation  of  gas  may  be  stopped 
by  administering  an  ounce  of  pure  creolin  directly  into  the  paunch  through 
the  artificial  opening.  Sometimes,  after  all  danger  of  a  fatal  termination 
is  passed,  the  animal  will  have  indigestion  for  some  time  afterwards,  ow- 
ing to  the  complete  or  partial  paralysis  of  the  walls  of  the  rumen  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  great  distention.  This  may  be  treated  by  administering  the 
following  mixture : 

Powdered  nux  vomica    2  oz. 

Powdered  ginger  root    2  oz. 

Powdered  gentian  root    4  oz. 

Powdered  nitrate  of  potash   2  oz. 

These  ingredients  are  to  be  mixed  and  divided  into  eight  powders,  and 
the  animal  is  to  receive  one  powder  every  twelve  hours  in  a  little  water, 
as  a  drench.  Food  should  always  be  withheld  from  the  animal  for  some 
time  after  an  attack  of  bloating.  (See  "Bloat,"  in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  A  FEED  FOR  HOGS. 

By  RAY  GATEWOOD,  Assistant  Animal  Husbandman,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

While  alfalfa  may  be  fed  to  some  classes  of  hogs  with  a  greater  profit 
than  to  others,  it  may  be  rated  as  a  desirable  feed  for  all  classes.  It 
may  be  utilized  in  several  different  forms,  either  as  pasture,  hay,  meal 
or  silage. 

Alfalfa  is  the  best  pasture  crop  that  can  be  grown  for  hogs.  Among 
the  many  advantages  are  that  it  comes  early  in  the  spring,  remains  late 
in  the  fall,  and  provides  a  nourishing,  succulent  feed  throughout  the 
summer.  While  it  will  not  fatten  a  young  growing  pig  when  used  alone, 
because  of  its  bulk,  it  will  develop  a  large  frame  and  capacity  for  feed, 
which  results  in  tremendous  gains  during  a  short  finishing  period.  It 
furnishes  adequate  nutrients  for  dry  brood  sows  and  stock  hogs,  during 
favorable  seasons,  without  the  use  of  supplementary  grain  in  any  form. 
When  hogs  are  fattened  on  corn  alone  in  a  dry  lot,  as  compared  with 
corn  and  alfalfa  pasture,  the  differences  are  so  great  as  to  create  doubt 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  not  watched  the  comparison  very  closely 
under  controlled  conditions. 

The  hay  also  makes  a  very  desirable  feed,  especially  during  the 
winter  when  there  is  special  need  of  some  cheap  feed  for  maintenance 
and  growth.  The  last  cutting  is  generally  preferable,  as  it  is  not  as 
coarse  and  stemmy  as  the  earlier  crops.  It  is  best  fed  from  racks,  as  in 
this  way  it  is  easily  accessible  to  the  hogs  and  may  be  eaten  with  but 
little  waste. 

The  meal  has  not  been  brought  into  common  use,  as  but  few  farms 
are  equipped  with  special  mills  for  grinding  the  hay,  and  it  is  hardly 


424 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  357.    -Hogs  fed 


•[Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


practical  to  buy  it  on  the  market  when  the  price  and  quality  are  to  be 
considered.  The  meal  has  no  advantage  over  the  hay  unless  a  very 
coarse  grade  of  hay  is  to  be  used,  so  that  its  general  use  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  It  may  find  a  use  when  growing  hogs  are  to  be  run  on  a 
self-feeder.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  finely  ground  and  mixed 
with  the  grain  ration.  Feeding  in  this  manner  makes  it  possible  to 
limit  the  amount  of  grain  which  can  be  consumed  and  thus  prevent  the 
hogs  from  becoming  too  fat. 

Where  alfalfa  silage  is  available  it  may  be  fed  to  brood  sows,  but  it 
has  no  advantages  over  the  hay.  In  fact  it  has  several  disadvantages. 
It  costs  more  per  ton  when  figured  on  a  dry  basis,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
handle,  and  is  not  as  satisfactory  to  feed,  especially  during  the  cold 
weather,  as  it  must  be  fresh  if  the  hogs  are  to  eat  it  to  advantage.  Dur- 
ing the  cold  weather  hogs  will  not  leave  their  houses,  and  it  becomes 
frozen  and  unpalatable.  Small  pigs  pay  but  little  attention  to  it,  espec- 
ially if  hay  is  available. 

Alfalfa  should  constitute  one  of  the  principal  feeds  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  breeding  herd.  Open  mature  sows,  when  allowed  the  run 


FIG.  358.    Hogs  fed  corn  and  alfalfa  hay. —  [Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station.] 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  425 

of  alfalfa  pasture  alone,  have  been  found  to  gain  in  weight.  Bred  sows 
have  also  been  carried  over  the  summer  on  alfalfa  pasture  up  until  two 
or  three  weeks  before  farrowing  and  have  produced  good-sized  litters 
of  strong,  healthy  pigs.  The  season  will  have  considerable  influence  on 
this,  however.  In  dry  seasons  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pasture 
does  not  become  too  short.  In  wet  seasons  sows  will  not  do  so  well,  as 
the  plants  are  of  a  washy  nature,  and  they  will  not  come  through  in  as 
good  condition  as  in  drier  seasons.  Running  sows  on  pasture  has  a 
particular  advantage,  in  that  the  sows  must  take  exercise  in  order  to 
gain  a  livelihood. 

The  herd  boar,  too,  should  have  the  run  of  a  small  lot  in  which  there 
is  alfalfa,  as  it  will  tend  toward  keeping  him  in  good  physical  condition, 
which  is  so  important  during  the  breeding  season. 


FIG.  359.    A  rack  for  feeding,  alfalfa  hay  to  swine. 
[Courtesy  Idaho  Experiment  Station.] 

Sows  suckling  litters  may  have  the  run  of  an  alfalfa  pasture.  This 
will  give  them  opportunity  to  exercise,  which  will  take  the  pigs  out  into 
the  open  away  from  the  houses.  The  pigs  will  soon  begin  to  eat  at  the 
green  plants,  and  this  will  help  to  develop  their  digestive  tract,  which  is 
important  in  their  further  development.  The  fresh  green  feed  increases 
the  milk  flow  of  the  mother,  and  will  in  that  way  hasten  the  growth  of 
the  pigs.  Care  should  be  taken  when  first  turning  the  sows  out,  as  they 
will  overeat,  and  this  is  sure  to  cause  digestive  trouble  in  the  pigs.  When 
starting  them  it  is  well  to  begin  by  feeding  a  small  amount  of  green 
alfalfa,  and  when  turned  out  allow  them  to  stay  only  for  a  short  time 
until  the  pigs  become  accustomed  to  the  change  of  feed. 


426 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


For  growing  shoats  alfalfa  will  produce  more  gain  than  any  other 
pasture  obtainable.  Shoats  on  alfalfa  alone  will  just  about  maintain 
their  body  weight.  Grain  which  is  given  in  addition  is  used  very  largely 
for  increase  in  weight.  The  amount  they  should  receive  will  depend  upon 
whether  they  are  to  be  used  for  breeding  or  market  purposes,  time  of 
marketing,  and  the  price  of  grain.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  for  the  breed- 
ing herd  the  grain  should  be  limited  to  a  certain  extent,  allowing  them 
enough  to  promote  growth  but  not  enough  to  become  fat.  Shoats  weigh- 
ing from  50  to  100  pounds  will  make  better  use  of  alfalfa  than  hogs  of 
any  other  weight.  With  corn  at  60  cents  a  bushel  young  hogs  will  make 
gains  at  a  cost  of  $2.50  to  $4  per  hundred. 


FIG.  360.    The  plan  of  a  rack  for  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  swine. — [Courtesy  Breeder's  Gazette.] 

The  Kansas  Experiment  Station  has  conducted  an  experiment  in  which 
pigs  were  full  fed  on  ground  corn,  and  on  a  mixture  of  ground  corn 
(62  per  cent),  shorts  (30  per  cent),  and  tankage  (8  per  cent),  in  the 
dry  lot,  and  on  alfalfa  pasture.  The  lot  receiving  ground  corn  in  the 
dry  lot  made  only  one-third  the  gain  made  by  the  lot  receiving  ground 
corn  on  alfalfa  pasture,  and  consumed  twice  as  much  grain  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain.  Of  the  lots  receiving  the  grain  mixture,  the  lot  fed  in 
the  dry  lot  made  two-thirds  as  much  gain  as  the  lot  fed  on  alfalfa  pas- 
ture, and  required  more  grain  per  pound  of  gain.  In  another  experi- 
ment, in  which  older  pigs  were  fattened  on  ground  corn  in  the  dry  lot, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  427 

the  addition  of  alfalfa  hay  produced  gains  one-fourth  greater  than  the 
gains  from  corn  alone  and  decreased  the  amount  of  grain  necessary  to 
produce  a  pound  of  gain  eighteen  per  cent. 

In  a  recent  sixty-day  pig-feeding  trial  at  the  Hays  Branch  Experiment 
Station,  a  grain  mixture  of  ground  kafir  (62  per  cent),  shorts  (30  per 
cent),  and  tankage  (8  per  cent),  was  fed  on  alfalfa  pasture.  The  lot 
which  received  no  grain  during  the  first  forty  days,  and  was  then  full  fed, 
made  one-half  the  gains  made  by  the  lot  which  was  full  fed  during  the 
entire  period,  and  required  3*/£  pounds  grain  per  pound  of  gain,  as  com- 
pared with  5  pounds  required  by  the  full-fed  lot.  While  the  pigs  made  a 
daily  gain  of  one-third  of  a  pound  per  head  on  alfalfa  pasture  without 
grain,  their  daily  gains  averaged  slightly  more  than  2  pounds  per 
head.  The  lot  which  received  a  limited  amount  of  grain  on  alfalfa 
pasture  made  two-thirds  the  gain  made  by  the  lot  which  received  no  grain 
for  forty  days,  and  required  more  grain  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  than 
the  latter  did. 

It  has  been  found  that  from  100  to  200  pounds  of  alfalfa  have  saved 
100  pounds  of  corn.  If  100  pounds  of  corn  will  produce  20  pounds  of 
pork,  figuring  corn  at  60  cents,  the  alfalfa  would  return  a  value  of  $18.50 
per  ton.  Figuring  3  tons  per  acre,  the  total  returns  would  be  $55.  In 
some  cases  it  has  run  as  high  as  $80,  but  this  is  an  exception  and  can  not 
be  expected  in  common  practice.  An  acre  of  pasture  producing  800  pounds . 
of  pork  worth  7  cents  per  pound  would  return  $56,  which  allows  a  very 
good  profit. 

TABLE  No.  48.     Rations  for  swine,  which  include  alfalfa.     Suggested  by  the  Kansas 
Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 

BROOD  Sows,  DRY: 

I.    Alfalfa  pasture  alone  best  during  dry  season. 
II.    Alfalfa  pasture. 

1  pound  of  grain  daily. 
BKOOD  Sows  WITH  LITTERS: 

I.    Allow  3.5  pounds  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily,  consisting  of: 
Corn,  60  parts. 
Bran,  10  parts. 
Shorts,  30  parts. 
Alfalfa  pasture  or  hay  at  will. 
FATTENING  HOGS: 

I.    Allow  3.5  to  4  pounds  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily,  consisting  of: 

Corn. 

Alfalfa  pasture  or  hay  at  will. 

II.    Allow  3.5  to  4  pounds  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily,  consisting  of : 
Corn,  6  parts. 
Shorts,  1  part. 

Alfalfa  pasture  or  hay  at  will. 
GROWING  PIGS: 

I.    Allow  2.5  pounds  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight,  daily,  consisting  of: 
Corn,  €5  parts. 
Shorts,  30  parts. 
Tankage,  5  parts. 
Alfalfa  pasture  or  hay  at  will. 

In  running  hogs  on  alfalfa  judgment  should  be  used  not  to  pasture  too 
heavily.  The  number  of  hogs  is  limited  by  the  yield,  the  size  of  the  hogs, 
and  the  amount  of  grain  they  are  receiving.  Under  ordinary  conditions  an 
acre  should  carry  from  eight  to  ten  mature  hogs  which  are  receiving 
no  igrain.  The  pasturing  should  allow  two  or  three  cuttings  of  hay  to  be 
removed.  In  this  way  the  crowns  of  the  plant  will  not  be  injured.  The 


428  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

ground  will  be  kept  more  shaded  which  will  hold  the  weeds  in  check.  Any 
weeds  which  start  will  be  destroyed  and  fresh  a  supply  of  new  shoots  will 
be  available  to  the  hogs.  Even  under  the  best  management  it  will  be 
necessary  to  reseed  the  fields  from  time  to  time,  as  the  stand  will  be  more 
or  less  thinned  by  tramping  and  rooting. 

All  experimental  and  practical  results  indicate  that  the  farmer  who 
is  most  successful  in  the  production  of  market  hogs  is  the  one  who  makes 
large  use  of  alfalfa  both  as  a  pasture  and  as  a  hay  crop.  Where  alfalfa 
does  not  furnish  a  major  portion  of  the  rations  used  a  successful  hog 
farm  may  undoubtedly  be  established  and  maintained,  but  the  expense  for 
mill  feeds  and  the  use  of  corn  could  be  largely  reduced,  thus  increasing 
profits  to  the  maximum  if  alfalfa  entered  into  the  system  of  management 
and  feeding.  Considering  the  length  of  the  pasture  season,  the  conditions 
under  which  it  may  be  grown,  its  adaptability  to  all  classes  of  hogs,  and 
the  economy  of  producing  pork,  alfalfa  stands  without  a  peer.  (See 
"Swine,"  in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  A  HORSE  AND  MULE  FEED. 

By  W.  C.  McCAMPBELL,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Statistics  show  that  Kansas  had  34,384  acres  seeded  to  alfalfa  in  1891, 
while  the  report  for  1914  shows  1,193,641  acres,  an  increase  of  3371 
per  cent.  This  tremendous  increase  in  alfalfa  production  is  the  result  of 
a  rapidly  growing  appreciation  of  the  feeding  value  of  the  alfalfa  plant, 
and  with  such  a  wonderful  increase  one  might  be  led  to  believe  that  every 
possible  use  had  been  made  of  alfalfa  as  a  food  for  live  stock,  but  such  is 
not  the  case,  for  we  are  just  beginning  to  realize  its  immense  value  in  our 
horse-feeding  operations,  especially  in  the  feeding  of  work  horses.  The 
prejudice  against  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  work  horses  is  an  honest  senti- 
ment, many  times  based  upon  personal  experience,  but  in  practically  every 
case  the  unsatisfactory  experiences  have  resulted  from  a  lack  of  proper 
understanding  of  the  nutritive  value  and  physical  properties  of  the  alfalfa 
plant.  For  this  reason  a  brief  discussion  of  the  chemical  and  nutritive 
constituents  of  alfalfa  will  be  given. 

The  nutritive  elements  that  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  plac- 
ing a  value  on  any  feed  are  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats.  Of  the 
three,  protein  is  the  most  important,  the  most  expensive,  and,  when  fed 
in  excessive  quantities,  causes  the  most  trouble;  hence  the  necessity  of 
giving  special  attention  to  the  protein  content  of  all  feeds  used  in  com- 
pounding a  ration.  A  comparison  of  the  available  amounts  of  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fats  of  alfalfa  hay  and  some  of  our  more  common  feed- 
stuffs,  reveals  the  fact  that  alfalfa  hay  is  very  rich  in  protein.  This  is 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


429 


FIG.  361.    A  rack  for  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  horses. 
[Courtesy  .Nebraska  Experiment  Station.] 

TABLE  No.  49.     Available  nutrients  per  100  pounds  of  some  of  the  common  horse  feeds. 


FEED. 

Protein, 
pounds. 

Carbo- 
hydrates, 
pounds. 

Fat 
pounds. 

Alfalfa  hay  
Oats                    

11.0 
9.2 

39.6 

47.3 

1.2 

4.2 

Barley  

8.7 

65.6 

1.6 

Shelled  corn  

7.9 

66.7 

4.3 

We  note  from  the  table  that  there  are  11  pounds  of  available  usable 
protein  in  100  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  only  7.9  pounds  of  available 
protein  in  100  pounds  of  shelled  corn.  In  other  words,  there  is  approxi- 
mately 35  per  cent  more  available  protein  in  one  pound  of  alfalfa  hay 
than  there  is  in  one  pound  of  shelled  corn.  These  facts  and  figures  im- 
press upon  us  the  necessity  of  looking  upon  alfalfa  hay  as  a  concentrate 
rather  than  a  roughage.  A  man  would  be  considered  very  foolish  were  he 
feeding  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn  a  day  to  a  1200-pound  horse,  and  yet 
many  are  doing  a  more  foolish  thing  when  they  feed  their  horses  all  the 
alfalfa  hay  they  will  eat.  Such  a  practice  is  not  only  wasteful  but  it  is 
dangerous,  for  practically  all  of  the  protein  which  is  not  utilized  by  the 
body  must  be  eliminated  through  the  kidneys.  This  results  in  hyper- 
stimulation  or  even  inflammation  of  these  organs,  and  excessive  urination. 


430  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Feeding  excessive  amounts  of  protein  also  has  a  cloying  effect  upon  the 
whole  animal  system,  resulting  in  impaired  nutrition,  filling  and  swelling 
of  the  legs  and  hocks,  inability  to  stand  hard  work,  excessive  sweating, 
and  impaired  respiration.  So  it  must  be  remembered  that  if  the  feeder 
hopes  to  secure  satisfactory  results  in  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  horses  and 
mules  he  must  feed  it  in  limited  amounts — less  to  work  horses  than  to 
idle  horses. 

Another  important  consideration  in  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  horses  and 
mules  is  the  state  of  maturity  at  which  the  hay  has  been  cut.  We  have 
been  taught  that  alfalfa  should  be  cut  when  the  field  is  about  one-tenth 
in  bloom.  At  this  state  of  maturity  it  makes  excellent  hay  for  cattle, 
hogs  and  sheep,  but  such  hay  is  too  "washy"  for  horses.  For  horse  hay 
alfalfa  should  not  be  cut  until  the  full-bloom  stage  has  been  reached. 
This  has  been  demonstrated  by  experience  as  well  as  by  experiment. 

ALFALFA  HAY  FOR  WORK  HORSES. 

The  value  of  the  right  kind  of  alfalfa  hay  for  work  horses  when  fed 
in  limited  amounts  was  nicely  demonstrated  in  the  horse-feeding  experi- 
ment conducted  at  Fort  Riley  under  the  direction  of  the  Kansas  Experi- 
ment Station.  A  summary  of  these  results  is  shown  in  the  table  on  page 
following. 

Comparing  lots  12  and  5,  we  find  that  these  two  lots  received  daily 
practically  the  same  amounts  of  corn  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight. 
In  addition  to  the  corn  the  horses  in  lot  5  received  daily  3.36  pounds  of 
oats  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight,  while  the  horses  in  lot  12  received 
daily,  in  addition  to  the  corn,  only  1.7  pounds  of  oats  per  thousand 
pounds  live  weight.  Thus  the  horses  in  lot  5  received  daily  10.08  pounds 
of  grain,  while  those  in  lot  12  received  daily  8.5  pounds  of  grain  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight.  The  horses  in  lot  5,  receiving  10.08  pounds 
of  grain,  were  fed  daily  11.75  pounds  of  prairie  hay  per  thousand 
pounds  live  weight,  while  the  horses  in  lot  12,  receiving  8.5  pounds  of 
grain,  were  fed  daily  only  8.5  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  per  thousand  pounds 
live  weight.  The  horses  in  lot  12,  receiving  the  smaller  amounts  of  both 
grain  and  hay,  showed  better  thrift  and  condition  than  those  in  lot  5, 
did  their  work  just  as  well  in  every  respect,  and  made  a  gain  of  25.6 
pounds  per  horse,  while  those  in  lot  5  showed  a  loss  of  13.3  pounds  per 
horse.  The  ration  used  in  lot  12  resulted  in  a  reduction  of  15.57  per 
cent  in  the  grain  portion  of  the  daily  ration  per  thousand  pounds  live 
weight  and  27.7  per  cent  in  the  hay. 

Comparing  lots  12  and  2,  we  find  that  the  horses  in  lot  12  made 
a  gain  of  25.6  pounds  per  horse,  while  the  horses  in  lot  2  lost  29.3 
pounds  per  horse  during  the  test.  In  lot  12  the  grain  fed  daily  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight  was  reduced  17.23  per  cent,  the  hay  29.1 
per  cent,  and  the  cost  of  the  daily  ration  per  thousand  pounds  live 
weight  26.2  per  cent.  To  repeat,  here  was  fed  a  ration  satisfactory  in 
every  respect  and  26.2  per  cent  cheaper  than  a  ration  commonly  fed. 

In  the  two  comparisons  above,  the  substitution  of  alfalfa  hay  re- 
duced the  amount  of  hay  required  almost  30  per  cent,  at  the  same  time 
reducing  the  amount  of  grain,  on  an  average,  about  16  per  cent.  While 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


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432  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

these  results  do  not  give  a  direct  comparison  in  the  value  of  alfalfa  and 
prairie  hay,  one  is  yet  justified  in  concluding  that  in  a  properly  balanced 
ration  one  pound  of  alfalfa  hay  is  probably  worth  two  pounds  of 
prairie  or  timothy  hay. 

The  method  practiced  by  a  majority  of  those  who  have  fed  alfalfa  to 
work  horses  in  the  past,  and  even  by  those  who  feed  it  at  present,  has 
been  to  fill  the  manger  morning,  noon  and  night,  thus  allowing  the  horse 
to  gorge  himself.  Prairie  hay  has  been  fed  in  this  way  without  any 
serious  results.  Alfalfa  hay  being  very  palatable,  horses  eat  very  large 
amounts,  and  the  results  have  been  very  unsatisfactory.  This  has  led  to 
a  verdict  that  alfalfa  hay  is  absolutely  unfit  to  feed  a  work  horse.  Such 
has  been  the  experience  of  hundreds  of  horsemen,  but  the  trouble  has  been 
with  the  method  of  feeding,  not  with  the  alfalfa  hay. 

If  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  properly  it  is  the  most  valuable  horse  feed  avail- 
able for  the  average  Kansas  farmer,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  hay  must  not  be  cut  until  quite  mature;  it  must  be  free  from  dust, 
mold  or  smut,  and  it  must  be  fed  in  limited  quantities.  As  to  the  amount 
to  be  fed,  experience  seems  to  indicate  that  about  one  pound  per  day  per 
hundred  pounds  live  weight  is  the  maximum  amount  for  work  horses. 

Because  of  its  high  proportion  of  digestible  protein,  alfalfa  balances 
very  well  with  corn,  and  these  two  feeds  make  the  most  economical  ration 
the  Kansas  farmer  who  grows  alfalfa  can  feed,  and  probably  as  satis- 
factory as  any,  for  the  farme.r  can  control  the  time  of  cutting  and  the 
manner  of  curing  and  caring  for  the  hay.  But  wherever  possible,  horses 
fed  alfalfa  hay  should  also  have  access  to  prairie,  cane  or  kafir  hay  or 
corn  fodder  to  add  bulk  to  the  ration  and  satisfy  the  craving  that  always 
results  when  very  rich  feeds  are  fed  for  long  periods  of  time.  The  man 
who  buys  alfalfa  hay  on  the  market  usually  chooses  the  hay  showing  the 
brightest  green  color,  which  is  often  the  poorest  for  work  horses,  because 
it  has  been  cut  too  green  and  will  be  very  "washy."  If,  however,  he  will 
purchase  average,  well-cured,  clean  alfalfa  hay  he  will  be  able  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  feed  very  materially  by  substituting  alfalfa  hay  for  a  part  of 
the  prairie  or  timothy  hay.  He  may  substitute  one  pound  of  alfalfa  hay 
for  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  of  prairie  or  timothy  hay  until  from 
one-third  to  one-half  or  more  of  the  prairie  or  timothy  hay  has  been  re- 
placed by  alfalfa  hay,  the  amount  used  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the 
alfalfa  substituted  for  the  other  hays. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  feeding  alfalfa  hay  to  old  horses  with 
poor  teeth,  as  they  can  not  properly  masticate  the  hay,  and  impaction  is 
liable  to  result.  In  fact,  this  is  a  common  cause  of  impaction  in  old 
horses  in  alfalfa-feeding  districts. 

ALFALFA   MEAL  FOR   HORSES  AND   MULES. 

The  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  meal  is  not  well  understood.  As  the  value 
of  bran  as  a  horse  feed  has  long  been  recognized,  a  comparison  of  alfalfa 
meal  with  bran  will  probably  give  as  practical  an  idea  as  can  be  given  of 
the  feeding  value  of  the  latter.  One  pound  of  alfalfa  meal  is  almost  equal 
in  feeding  value  to  one  pound  of  bran.  There  are,  however,  some  objec- 
tions to  its  use  as  a  horse  feed.  It  is  a  disagreeable  feed  to  handle,  be- 
cause, as  it  is  finely  pulverized  and  very  light,  a  large  part  of  it  rises  in 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


433 


—15 


434  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

a  cloud  of  dust  whenever  handled  in  bulk.  If  fed  dry,  even  when  mixed 
with  other  feeds,  a  large  amount  of  this  dust  is  continually  getting  into 
the  air  passages  of  the  horse.  The  mucous  membranes  lining  these 
passages  are  tender  and  easily  irritated,  and  the  use  of  dry  alfalfa  meal 
for  any  length  of  time  may  cause  serious  irritation  and  inflammation  of 
the  respiratory  tract.  This  objection  may  be  overcome  by  wetting  the 
alfalfa  meal,  but  to  prevent  souring  or  molding  this  wetting  must  be 
done  immediately  before  feeding.  This  is  a  task  involving  no  little  time 
and  inconvenience,  especially  in  winter. 

Another  objection  is  the  fact  that  one  does  not  know  what  kind  of  hay 
he  is  getting  when  it  is  bought  in  the  form  of  alfalfa  meal.  Most  mills 
are  putting  out  a  very  good  quality  of  meal,  but  wet,  moldy  and  even 
rotten  hay  is  sometimes  ground  into  meal.  It  has  been  claimed  that  much 
less  is  wasted  in  feeding  alfalfa  in  the  form  of  meal  than  in  the  form  of 
hay;  but  if  the  hay  is  properly  fed  very  little,  if  any,  will  be  wasted. 

Experience  has  shown  that  when  alfalfa  hay  is  available  alfalfa  meal 
is  not  a  desirable  or  economical  feed  for  horses  and  mules. 

ALFALFA  PASTURE  FOR  HORSES  AND   MULES. 

The  advisability  of  pasturing  alfalfa  is  a  question  upon  which  horse- 
men do  not  agree,  but  after  a  careful  study  of  the  question  it  would 
seem  that  as  a  general  practice,  under  average  Kansas  conditions,  pastur- 
ing horses  and  mules  on  alfalfa  is  not  to  be  recommended.  Some  of  the 
more  important  reasons  for  this  conclusion  are  as  follows : 

First.  More  feed  can  be  secured  from  an  acre  of  alfalfa  in  the  form 
of  hay  than  in  the  form  of  pasture. 

Second.  The  general  practice  of  pasturing  will  kill  the  alfalfa  plant 
unless  special  precautions  are  observed,  and  we  are  all  more  or  less  prone 
to  neglect  precautionary  measures,  especially  if  they  involve  very  much 
work  or  inconvenience.  Some  of  the  more  important  precautionary 
measures  that  must  be  observed  if  alfalfa  is  to  be  pastured  are:  alfalfa 
must  not  be  pastured  while  the  plant  is  young  or  immature ;  close  grazing 
must  always  be  avoided;  horses  should  be  removed  during  the  middle  of 
the  day,  as  they  will  congregate  in  groups  at  this  time  and  kill  out  large 
areas  in  fighting  flies,  giving  foxtail  and  other  plants  an  opportunity  to 
secure  a  foothold  from  which  they  will  spread  very  rapidly;  pasturing 
heavily  in  the  fall  leaves  the  field  bare  and  unprotected,  as  well  as  pre- 
vents the  catching  and  retaining  of  the  snow  and  rain.  This  is  a  very 
important  consideration,  as  the  moisture  caught  and  retained  during  the 
fall  and  winter  months  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  yield  the  follow- 
ing season. 

Third.  Pasturing  horses  and  mules  on  alfalfa  involves  some  risk  and 
danger  from  colic  and  indigestion.  To  minimize  this  danger  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water  must  be  provided,  so  that  the  horses  may  drink  often.  If 
this  precaution  is  not  observed  the  horses  will  fill  up  on  alfalfa  and  later 
gorge  themselves  with  water.  This  often  results  in  colic.  Usually  the 
attack  is  rather  mild,  but  not  infrequently  it  becomes  very  serious.  An- 
other precaution  that  should  be  observed  for  the  sake  of  safety  is  the 
rack  or  stack  of  straw  or  coarse  hay  from  which  horses  may  eat  at  will 
when  pastured  on  alfalfa. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


435 


43M 
* 


II 


'•S  S 


436  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

To  sum  up  the  situation,  one  might  say  that  with  proper  precaution 
horses  and  mules  thrive  on  alfalfa  pasture,  but  from  the  standpoint  of 
economy  and  profit  it  is  not  a  good  practice  to  pasture  alfalfa  when  the 
value  of  the  plant,  the  value  of  a  good  stand,  and  the  cost  of  reseeding  is 
taken  into  consideration.  These  conclusions  are  in  keeping  with  the 
experiences  of  our  most  successful  Kansas  horsemen,  who  have  given 
these  matters  particular  attention  and  study.  (See  "Horses  and  Mules," 
in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  A  POULTRY  FEED. 

By  W.  A.  LIPPINCOTT,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Alfalfa  finds  a  place  in  two  of  the  four  divisions  of  the  poultry  ration. 
A  poultry  ration  is  for  convenience  classified  into  grains,  green  feed, 
mash,  and  mineral  feed.  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  very  best  forms  of  green 
feed  that  can  be  furnished,  and  is  also  very  freely  used  in  the  ground 
or  mealed  form  in  the  mash.  As  a  green  feed  or  succulence,  alfalfa  must 
be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  its  medicinal  or  hygienic  value 
rather  than  from  the  standpoint  of  nutrition.  Alfalfa,  in  common  with 
the  legumes  in  general,  possesses  a  much  higher  feed  value  than  many  of 
the  other  forms  of  green  feed,  such  as  mangel  beets,  kale,  cabbage,  rape 
and  the  like.  Some  green  stuff  should  always  be  given  fowls  as  a  separate 
feed  where  it  is  at  all  possible  to  do  so.  The  alfalfa  meal  fed  in  the  mash 
does  not  take  the  place  of  the  fresh  greenness. 

During  the  spring  and  summer  the  best  way  to  feed  it  is  to  allow  the 
birds  to  pasture  upon  it.  Besides  having  a  desirable  effect  upon  the 
digestive  tract,  it  serves  as  an  appetizer,  adds  variety  to  the  ration,  and 
tends  to  give  a  good  color  to  the  yolk,  owing  to  the  iron  which  it  contains. 
It  has  been  frequently  claimed  by  commercial  egg  men  that  alfalfa  is 
responsible  for  an  undesirable  condition  in  eggs  which  appears  in  the 
spring,  known  as  "green  whites,"  or  "grass  eggs."  At  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion, however,  Mauer  and  Harris  kept  six  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hens  in 
an  alfalfa  field  for  several  weeks.  The  birds  were  given  no  feed  beyond 
that  which  they  secured  in  the  alfalfa  field  itself,  and  which  was  largely 
made  up  of  alfalfa  and  grasshoppers.  The  eggs  from  half  the  hens  were 
subjected  to  careful  inspection  and  bacterial  analysis.  Half  the  eggs 
were  kept  at  room  temperature  and  blood  temperature  for  four  weeks, 
and  were  then  broken  into  white  porcelain  dishes  and  examined  for 
greenish  discoloration.  No  "grass  eggs"  were  found.  The  half  of  the 
eggs  which  was  subjected  to  bacterial  analysis  was  found  to  contain  no 
pigment-producing  organisms.  More  recently  a  pigment-forming  organ- 
ism has  been  isolated  from  "green  whites"  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  which  accounts  for 
them,  but  which  has  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  alfalfa.  There  is  no  reason 
at  all  why  birds  should  not  be  allowed  to  pasture  freely  upon  it.  In  fact, 
in  the  western  part  of  the  state  it  has  been  frequently  shown  during 
grasshopper  years  that  both  chickens  and  turkeys  may  be  pastured  on  the 
alfalfa  fields  by  the  use  of  portable  colony  houses,  and  thrive  on  the  grass- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  437 

hoppers  and  alfalfa,  at  the  same  time  so  protecting  the  alfalfa  from  the 
ravages  of  the  grasshoppers  that  a  fairly  good  crop  could  be  cut.  One 
man  reported  that  he  not  only  saved  his  alfalfa,  but  marketed  the  chickens 
which  he  used  for  $15  more  than  he  paid  for  them,  thereby  finding  a  means 
of  marketing  the  grasshoppers. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  generally  considered  to  furnish  the  very  finest 
pasturage  for  fowls.  Cut  alfalfa  hay  that  is  cured  green  furnishes  an 
excellent  temporary  substitute  for  succulence  when  steamed. 

The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  found  in  100  pounds  of  green 
alfalfa  as  determined  by  digestion  experiments  with  ruminants  are  3.6 
pounds  of  protein,  0.4  pounds  of  fat,  and  8  to  11  pounds  of  nitrogen-free 
extract.  It  contains  2.7  pounds  of  ash,  and  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  to  2.7. 

During  the  last  few  years  finely  ground  alfalfa  hay  has  appeared  on 
the  market  as  alfalfa  meal,  and  if  of  good  quality,  is  a  good  substitute 
for  wheat  bran,  as  it  is  high  in  protein,  ash,  and  fat.  In  buying  this  feed, 
however,  the  guaranteed  analysis  should  be  carefully  considered,  and  a 
careful  examination  should  be  made  as  to  the  crude  fiber  content.  A 
large  proportion  of  fiber  would  indicate  that  the  meal  was  ground  chiefly 
from  stalks,  which  are  of  little  feed  value,  rather  than  the  leaves,  which 
contain  most  of  the  nutrients.  Crude  fiber,  of  which  the  stalks  contain 
a  large  proportion,  is  almost  altogether  indigestible  for  poultry.  Other 
alfalfa  feeds,  known  as  chopped  and  shredded  alfalfa,  are  more  easily 
examined  and  much  less  liable  to  be  of  a  poor  grade,  because  of  the 
coarser  condition,  than  alfalfa  meal. 

Although  alfalfa  feed  contains  a  large  proportion  of  nitrogen  com- 
pounds, it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  made  from  the  alfalfa  hay 
and  not  concentrates,  and  therefore  should  not  be  fed  to  excess  because 
of  their  high  crude-fiber  content  and  low  availability.  They  may  be  used 
with  good  results  up  to  20  per  cent  of  the  mash  portion  of  the  ration, 
provided  no  bran  is  used.  The  total  amount  of  bran  and  alfalfa  meal 
should  not  exceed  25  per  cent  of  the  mash  at  any  time.  Alfalfa  meal  has 
the  same  composition  as  does  the  best  quality  of  alfalfa  hay.  In  protein 
content  it  is  ahead  of  that  reported  for  bran  or  middlings,  but  the  total 
food  value  of  the  latter  is  greater  because  they  contain  comparatively 
little  fiber  (average  5  per  cent)  as  compared  with  alfalfa  meal  (over  25 
per  cent). 

The  mealed  alfalfa  is  also  exceedingly  valuable  as  a  first  bed  for  the 
brooder.  When  chickens  are  first  put  in  the  brooder  after  hatching  they 
are  capable  of  exercising  very  little  choice  in  the  matter  of  feed.  Where 
the  litter  is  made  up  of  sand,  chaff  or  other  indigestible  material,  they  not 
infrequently  start  to  eating  this,  and  large  numbers  of  them  become 
empacted  and  die.  Where  alfalfa  is  used  it  is  digestible  enough  so  that  it 
does  not  do  the  birds  any  harm  if  they  do  fill  up  on  it. 

A  ration  for  egg  production  that  has  given  very  good  results  through- 
out the  middle  states  is  the  following: 

The  scratching  ration  is  made  up  of  three  parts  (by  weight)  of  wheat, 
two  of  corn  or  kafir,  and  one  of  oats.  This  is  fed  in  a  litter,  so  that  the 
birds  will  be  compelled  to  scratch  for  it.  A  mash  feed,  which  may  be 


438  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

fed  either  wet  or  dry,  contains  60  pounds  of  corn  meal,  60  pounds  of 
wheat  middlings  or  shorts,  50  pounds  of  meat  scrap,  20  pounds  of  mealed 
alfalfa,  20  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  10  pounds  of  linseed  oil  meal,  and  one 
pound  of  salt.  At  the  same  time  grit,  oyster  shell  and  charcoal  should 
be  kept  before  the  birds,  and  all  the  green  alfalfa  they  will  clean  up  in 
a  half  hour  once  a  day,  if  the  birds  are  confined.  In  the  wintertime,  when 
green  alfalfa  is  not  available,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  substitute 
mangel  beets  or  sprouted  oats.  (See  "Poultry,"  in  index.) 


ALFALFA  AS  A  HUMAN  FOOD. 

By  MARGARET  H.  HAGGART,  Professor  of  Domestic  Science, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

Manufacturers  of  alfalfa  products  for  human  consumption  submitted 
to  the  department  of  domestic  science  samples  of  a  blended  flour,  tea, 
and  coffee,  made  from  alfalfa,  together  with  manufactured  products  of 
crackers,  cookies  and  candy.  The  crackers  and  cookies  were  palatable. 
The  candy  was  of  such  a  pronounced  alfalfa  flavor  that  it  was  not  rel- 
ished by  those  who  sampled  it. 

The  flour  submitted  was  made  from  the  alfalfa  leaf,  prepared  by  a 
patent  method,  and  mixed  with  wheat  flour  for  better  results.  This 
flour  was  not  analyzed,  but  it  was  used  in  making  griddle  cakes,  muffins, 
biscuits,  doughnuts  and  cake.  The  batter  and  dough  mixtures  behaved 
in  all  respects  like  those  made  from  ordinary  flour.  The  finished  pro- 
ducts were  sampled  by  a  number  of  people.  All  agreed  that  the  decided 
greenish  tint  was  undesirable  in  a  food,  though,  of  course,  this  was  a 
matter  of  mere  prejudice.  The  griddle  cakes,  muffins,  doughnuts  and  cake 
were  very  palatable  and  agreeable  to  the  taste;  but  in  the  biscuits  the 
alfalfa  flavor  was  very  pronounced,  and  many  people  objected  to  it. 

The  manufacturers  do  not  claim  that  alfalfa  flour  can  be  substituted 
for  wheat  flour  in  bread  making.  Their  claim  for  it  is,  like  the  claim 
now  made  for  potato  flour  in  Germany,  that  it  is  a  saver  of  the  king  of 
cereals — wheat. 

Tea  made  from  the  dried  leaves  of  alfalfa  tasted  very  much  like  an 
ordinary  herb  tea,  and  one  might  be  able  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  it. 
Coffee  made  from  the  baked  leaves  of  alfalfa  was  quite  as  agreeable  to 
the  taste  as  that  of  any  cereal  coffee.  The  odor  of  the  boiling  liquid 
very  strongly  suggested  alfalfa. 

As  to  the  particular  therapeutic  value  of  alfalfa  for  human  food 
investigation  has  not  furnished  conclusive  evidence.  The  large  amount 
of  fiber  contained  adds  greatly  to  its  value  as  a  laxative.  The  large 
amounts  of  all  kinds  of  mineral  matter  necessary  to  the  living  organism 
would  greatly  increase  its  value  as  a  food. 

However,  even  though  a  food  may  contain  large  amounts  of  the 
various  food  nutrients — carbohydrates,  proteins,  fats,  and  mineral  mat- 
ter— it  has  not  always  been  found  under  scientific  investigation  that  the 
nutrients  in  the  form  in  which  they  exist  are  available  to  the  human 
organism. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  439 


THE  ALFALFA  MILLING  INDUSTRY. 

By  C.  W.  WRIGHT,  Editor  Southwestern  Grain  and  Flour  Journal. 

Unique  among  the  western  industries  created  during  the  past  twelve 
years  is  the  manufacture  of  alfalfa  meal.  Alfalfa  has  long  been  recog- 
nized as  a  good  forage  crop — and  more:  its  chemical  properties  give 
it  a  place  in  feeding-stuffs  economy  for  which  no  satisfactory  substitute 
has  been  found.  And  it  is  fitting  that  a  citizen  of  Kansas,  the  state  that 
leads  in  the  production  of  the  legume,  should  be  first  to  reduce  alfalfa 
hay  to  a  shredded  or  chopped  form  and  successfully  employ  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  a  commercial  feed. 

This  honor  belongs  to  Otto  Weiss,  of  Wichita,  whose  discovery  and  the 
practical  use  thereof  has  done  more  the  past  ten  years  to  direct  the 
favorable  attention  of  the  world  to  the  genuine  goodness  of  alfalfa  meal 
than  any  other  half  dozen  contributing  agencies. 


FIG.  364.    A  big  alfalfa  mill  at  Wichita. 

It  was  along  in  1903  that  Mr.  Weiss,  who  divided  his  time  between  his 
wholesale  feed  business  and  the  raising  of  fancy  and  practical  poultry, 
found  that  the  fowls  fed  upon  a  hand-mixed  ration,  in  which  chopped 
alfalfa  was  an  ingredient,  were  chronically  addicted  to  the  habit  of 
acquiring  the  blue  ribbon  wherever  exhibited.  This  fact  became  im- 
pressed upon  the  minds  of  competing  exhibitors,  who  began  to  call  for  the 
kind  of  feed  that  contributed  so  largely  to  the  prize-winning  proclivities 
of  Mr.  Weiss'  fowls.  Hand  chopping  and  mixing  of  the  feed  soon  be- 
came inadequate  and  Mr.  Weiss  endeavored  to  secure  machinery  equip- 
ment that  would  do  the  work  on  a  larger  scale,  but  was  only  partly 
successful  until  he  had  equipment  built  in  accordance  with  his  own 
ideas. 

He  was  soon  putting  out  a  special  alfalfa  feed,  not  only  for  poultry, 
but  for  beef  steers,  for  driving  horses,  for  work  horses  and  mules,  and 
for  dairy  use.  From  the  small  equipment,  that  at  the  start  occupied 
but  a  corner  of  his  warehouse,  the  Otto  Weiss  plant  at  Wichita  now 
occupies  a  solid  block  of  ground,  while  additional  mills  for  the  pro- 


440  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

duction  of  straight  alfalfa  meal  have  been  built  or  acquired  by  the 
company  in  western  Kansas  during  the  present  year,  which  of  itself 
furnishes  a  fairly  comprehensive  idea  of  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  alfalfa  feed  milling  industry  during  its  comparatively  brief 
existence.  To-day  the  Otto  Weiss  Milling  Company  sells  alfalfa  meal,  or 
its  feeds  containing  an  alfalfa  meal  mixture,  in  almost  every  feed- 
consuming  state.  When  a  representative  of  the  company  appeared  on  the 
New  York  Produce  Exchange  in  1906  and  exhibited  samples  of  these 
feeds,  business  was  suspended  for  a  half  hour  while  the  members  of  that 
organization  received  their  first  lesson  concerning  the  new  wonders  of 
alfalfa. 

In  the  meantime  M.  C.  Peters,  of  Omaha,  had  established  a  plant  in 
the  Nebraska  City,  which  produced  not  only  the  chopped  alfalfa  and  the 
dry  feeds  in  which  it  was  a  component  part,  but  Mr.  Peters  went 
further;  he  added  beet  syrup  or  molasses  to  the  list  of  ingredients. 
To-day  the  alfalfa  meal  and  molasses  mixture  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
most  popular  feeds  on  the  market,  and  is  in  particular  favor  among 
cattle  feeders. 

For  two  or  three  years  Mr.  Weiss,  Mr.  Peters  and  one  or  two  other 
pioneers  in  the  alfalfa  milling  industry  experienced  little  competition. 
Then,  almost  overnight  it  seemed,  the  obsession  became  prevalent  through- 
out Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma  and  Colorado — in  fact,  wherever  a 
community  could  boast  of  a  few  hundred  acres  of  growing  alfalfa — that 
a  very  necessary  feature  incidental  to  the  plans  and  specifications  for 
an  alfalfa  mill  was  a  spout  through  which  the  profits — happy  residue 
from  successful  milling  operation — might  be  conveniently  carried  direct 
to  the  growing  balance  over  at  the  bank. 

The  citizens  of  a  hundred  towns  in  the  alfalfa  belt  encouraged  the 
establishment  of  mills,  but  in  nearly  every  instance  the  stockholders 
in  the  companies  thus  organized  eventually  discovered  that,  through 
some  error  in  the  flow  sheet,  the  suction  fan  seemed  to  pull  money 
through  the  "profit"  spout  the  wrong  way;  the  more  continuous  the 
operation  of  the  plant  the  greater  the  resulting  drain  on  the  baniv 
account. 

The  difficulties  were  many,  but  the  more  important  may  be  classified 
as  mechanical,  climatic  and  marketing. 

Most  of  the  alfalfa-milling  machinery  first  put  on  the  market  was 
neither  practical  nor  dependable.  Even  to-day  the  equipment  for  col- 
lecting the  dust-like  particles  of  pulverized  alfalfa  leaves  is  far  from 
perfect,  and  in  the  early  days  of  the  industry  one  could  readily  ascer- 
tain, even  at  a  distance  of  four  or  five  miles,  whether  or  not  an  alfalfa 
mill  was  in  operation.  If  it  was,  the  escaping  dust  mingling  with  the 
surrounding  atmosphere  gave  the  plant  the  appearance  of  being  cen- 
trally located  in  a  dense  green  fog — a  fog  that  represented  a  money 
loss  just  as  certainly  as  though  actual  greenbacks  were  floating  to  the 
breezes,  for  it  was  that  most  valuable  element,  protein,  contained  in  the 
pulverized  alfalfa  leaves,  that  was  lost  in  the  dust  cloud. 

Sparks  caused  by  friction  or  the  presence  of  a  piece  of  metal  in 
the  hay,  or  from  locomotives  passing  the  mill,  when  they  came  in  con- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  441 

tact  with  this  inflammable  dust  not  infrequently  resulted  in  fires  which 
destroyed  a  number  of  plants,  and  insurance  rates  became  prohibitive, 
protection  for  the  owner  of  the  more  cheaply  constructed  wooden  mills 
being  unobtainable  in  many  instances. 

Marketing  difficulties  were  numerous.  Except  in  the  irrigated  sec- 
tions of  the  alfalfa-producing  territory,  where  rains  and  dew  were  largely 
absent,  much  of  the  hay  offered  at  the  mills  was  lacking  in  the  con- 
ventional "pea-green"  shade  that,  even  to-day,  the  average  buyer  of 
alfalfa  meal  considers  vitally  essential  to  the  feeding  value  of  the  prod- 
uct. Brown-colored  meal  was  considered  meal  milled  from  spoiled  hay 
at  first,  though  of  recent  years  the  meal  from  the  "tobacco-cured"  or 
"silo-cured"  hay,  that  western  feeders  really  prefer  to  the  green-cured 
hay,  is  recognized  in  the  eastern  or  southern  markets  as  possessing 
genuine  merit,  though  a  material  premium  is  still  offered  for  meal 
showing  the  nearest  approach  to  the  appearance  of  the  uncut  alfalfa. 

Naturally  this  preference  for  alfalfa  meal  of  green  color  afforded 
endless  opportunity  for  trouble  between  the  miller  and  his  customers. 
Even  at  the  larger  markets,  where  the  services  of  official  grain  or  hay 
inspectors  might  be  available,  this  difficulty  was  not  appreciably  over- 
come, since  these  inspectors  had  had  no  experience  in  grading  alfalfa 
meal.  Probably  no  commercial  product  loaned  itself  more  readily  to  the 
creation  of  honest  or  dishonest  difference  of  opinion  than  alfalfa  meal, 
and  when  a  shipment  of  meal  arrived  at  a  point,  perhaps  a  thousand 
miles  from  the  mill,  with  the  draft  representing  its  value  unpaid,  and  no 
official  inspection  obtainable,  mutually  satisfactory  adjustment  of  such 
a  difference  became  increasingly  difficult. 

The  official  grades  established  for  alfalfa  meal  were  based  both  upon 
color  and  protein  content,  but  the  latter  was  not  usually  considered, 
provided  the  meal  possessed  the  desired  green  shade,  while  a  higher 
percentage  of  protein  could  not  be  depended  upon  to  offset  the  lack  of 
color. 

Another  factor  that  renders  alfalfa  milling  more  hazardous  than  the 
milling  of  flour  or  other  product  of  grains  is  the  necessity  that  the 
operator  of  an  alfalfa  mill  buy  his  raw  material  in  competition  with 
the  hay  dealer  or  stock  feeder,  while  on  his  finished  product  he  must 
compete  with  the  seller  of  whole  or  milled  grain.  Therefore  the  price 
paid  for  alfalfa  hay  or  obtained  for  the  meal  often  lacked  the  uni- 
form relationship  that  should  exist  to  insure  profitable  milling.  Hay 
prices  may  be  high,  while  those  for  corn  or  oats  may  be  relatively  low. 
This  condition  has  sometimes  resulted  in  the  price  of  the  sacked  meal 
being  no  higher  than  that  which  the  baled  hay  would  have  brought  the 
same  day  on  the  same  market. 

The  foregoing  portrays  in  some  measure  the  difficulties  experienced 
by  those  who  entered  the  alfalfa  milling  industry  eight  or  ten  years  ago. 
Three  out  of  every  five  of  the  companies  then  organized  are  now  out  of 
business,  while  two  of  every  three  remaining  operate  their  plants  but 
intermittently.  To-day  there  is  but  slight  inclination  manifested  to 
build  mills  in  the  rain  belt,  the  new  plants  being  almost  invariably 
located  in  the  irrigated  sections  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana  or 


442 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.   365.    Alfalfa  mills  are  located  largely  in  the  irrigated  districts. 

California,  with  now  and  then  one  appearing  in  western  Kansas  or 
Nebraska. 

But  this  does  not  mean  that  the  production  of  alfalfa  meal  has  de- 
creased. On  the  contrary,  each  year  shows  a  consistent  increase  over 
the  output  of  the  preceding  season,  for  the  reason  that  where  a  half 
dozen  small  mills,  located  in  sections  where  excess  of  rain  or  a  shipping 
and  feeding  demand  for  the  hay  renders  profitable  operation  difficult, 
have  discontinued  business,  a  newer  plant,  equaling  their  combined 
capacity,  has  been  established  at  a  point  in  Colorado,  or  perhaps  Wy- 
oming, where  an  abundance  of  irrigated  alfalfa  is  usually  harvested 
without  interference  from  rain  or  heavy  dews,  and  admits  of  uninter- 
rupted milling  operations  six  or  eight  months  in  the  year. 

Thus  it  is  that  Kansas,  where  the  alfalfa  milling  industry  originated, 
has  already  lost  its  early  prestige  in  this  respect — a  loss  that  the  State 
Agricultural  College  offidials  believe  is  more  than  offset  by  the  con- 
stantly increasing  marketing  of  alfalfa  in  the  shape  of  beef,  butter  fat, 
pork,  or  big-boned,  heavy  horses  and  mules. 

Very  few  growers  of  alfalfa  grind  the  hay  before  feeding  it  to  their 
own  animals.  They  do  not  believe  that  the  increased  value  justifies  the 
extra  trouble  and  expense.  However,  there  are  those  who  take  a  con- 
trary view.  For  example,  the  writer  is  reminded  of  one  of  the  most 
successful  stock  feeders  of  Marion  county,  Kansas,  who  invariably 
springs  the  top  market  quotations  on  the  Wichita  hog  market  ten  cents 
a  hundred  pounds  whenever  he  sends  down  a  load  of  porkers. 

This  interesting  farmer  is  totally  blind,  but  he  can  judge  the  condi- 
tion of  a  hog  or  steer  better  by  the  sense  of  touch  than  most  men  can 
with  the  assistance  of  their  eyesight.  He  feeds  a  mixture  of  corn  chop, 
alfalfa  meal  and  linseed  meal,  and  his  finished  hogs  usually  average 
around  340  pounds  and  dress  out  to  the  delight  of  the  packers.  He  can 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  443 

not  tell  you  just  the  proportions  of  each  ingredient  contained  in  the  ration 
fed,  since  he  conducts  his  own  experiment  station  and  varies  the  mixture 
according  to  weather  conditions,  the  quality  of  the  hogs  and  the  growth 
they  are  making.  But  the  important  thing  is  that  he  obtained  the  desired 
balance  to  the  ration  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  quantity  of  alfalfa 
meal  used.  It  was  two  or  three  years  ago  that  the  writer  met  this  gentle- 
man, and  at  that  time  the  average  weight  of  the  hogs  arriving  on  the 
Wichita  market  was  around  225  pounds,  as  corn  was  scarce  and  high  in 
price.  Admittedly  many  other  feeders  might  have  taken  lessons  from 
this  Marion  county  farmer,  who  habitually  topped  the  market  with  hogs 
weighing  a  hundred  pounds  more.  It  seems  safe  to  credit  alfalfa  meal 
with  at  least  a  portion  of  the  gain. 

Otto  Weiss  maintains  that  two  bushels  of  corn  and  one  bushel  of  al- 
falfa meal  exceed  three  bushels  of  corn  in  feeding  value.  The  price  of  the 
meal,  he  says,  should  never  fall  below  that  of  corn,  pound  for  pound.  The 
alfalfa  meal  causes  the  nutritive  elements  of  the  corn  to  be  fully  assimi- 
lated by  the  animal  to  which  the  mixture  is  fed.  Experiments  conducted 
at  the  feed  yards  of  the  M.  C.  Peters  Mill  Company  proved  that  hogs 
following  cattle  that  were  fed  on  a  well-balanced  alfalfa  meal  and  grain 
ration  would  starve,  so  completely  was  the  feed  assimilated  by  the  larger 
animals. 

One  of  the  largest  concerns  that  feed  cattle  in  Nebraska  has  found  it 
possible  to  shorten  the  feeding  period  from  six  or  eight  months  to  three  or 
four  months  merely  by  incorporating  alfalfa  meal  in  the  ration  fed.  An- 
other enthusiastic  exponent  of  the  igoodness  of  alfalfa  meal  claims  that 
1200  pounds  of  the  meal  put  more  meat  on  a  bunch  of  steers  than  a  ton  of 
alfalfa  hay.  Dairymen  have  found  alfalfa  meal  a  wonderful  stimulant 
to  milk  production,  some  reporting  a  gain  of  one-third  by  actual  test. 

One  of  the  finest  bunches  of  sheep  that  ever  arrived  at  the  Kansas 
City  stockyards  was  fattened  exclusively  on  alfalfa  meal  in  two-thirds 
of  the  time  ordinarily  required  where  grain  is  fed. 

It  would  appear  by  no  means  an  established  fact  that  the  grower  of 
alfalfa  can  reap  no  advantage  from  grinding  the  alfalfa  he  feeds  to  his 
own  animals.  The  Colorado  Experiment  Station  states,  in  Bulletin  No. 
187,  that  four  years  of  experimenting  seems  to  have  established  that  it 
will  pay  the  feeder  to  reduce  his  common  quality  of  alfalfa  hay  to  meal, 
provided  the  cost  of  the  meal,  delivered  at  the  farm,  is  not  more  than 
one  dollar  per  ton  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  hay,  where  the  meal  is 
coarsely  milled,  or  three  to  four  dollars  where  it  is  finely  floured.  It 
does  not  encourage  the  milling  of  top-quality  hay,  but  says  the  alfalfa 
grinder  has  a  legitimate  place  on  the  farm  and  enables  the  farmer  to 
make  a  better  clean-up  and  secure  a  much  closer  consumption  of  coarse, 
poor-quality  alfalfa  hay,  stack  tops  and  bottoms,  straw,  and  other  fodder. 
Anticipating  the  need  for  just  such  a  grinder  on  the  farm,  a  manu- 
facturing concern  located  at  Wichita,  Kan.,  has  placed  on  the  market  a 
small,  light-running,  all-purpose  mill  that  has  caused  many  users  to  see 
new  possibilities  in  feeding-stuffs  economy  as  practiced  on  the  farm,  as 
this  machine  grinds  with  equal  facility  alfalfa  hay,  kafir  heads,  ear  or 


444  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

shelled  corn,  straw,  pea-vine  hay,  and  even  the  finer  seeds,  such  as 
millet,  cane  or  broom-corn  seed. 

It  seems  reasonable  to  predict  that  within  a  few  years  every  progress- 
ive farmer  will  find  it  desirable  to  use  some  such  grinder  in  connection 
with  his  feeding  activities,  though  the  writer  does  not  believe  it  will  ever 
become  a  common  practice  for  him  to  haul  his  alfalfa  hay  to  a  mill  in 
town  several  miles  distant  and  have  it  ground  into  meal  which  must  be 
hauled  back  to  the  farm,  even  if  it  might  prove  profitable  in  certain 
feeding  operations. 

Returning  to  a  consideration  of  the  commercial  alfalfa  mill,  which 
depends  upon  distant,  not  local,  territory  for  its  market,  not  only  is  it  be- 
ing located  farther  west  in  the  alfalfa-producing  territory,  in  Colorado, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  even  California, 
but  quite  as  radical  a  change  has  occurred  of  recent  years  in  the  methods 
of  marketing  the  product.  The  early  efforts  of  the  millers  who  put  out 
only  a  straight  alfalfa  meal  were  directed  quite  as  largely  toward  creat- 
ing a  demand  among  the  small  feed-consuming  trade  as  among  the  large 
manufacturers  of  concentrated  feeds.  The  efforts  in  the  first-mentioned 
direction  were  disappointing,  since  the  individual  feeder  did  not  under- 
stand the  best  methods  of  feeding  the  meal,  nor  were  there  many  millers 
who  could  or  did  tell  him  how. 

The  meal,  which  is  very  dusty,  should  properly  be  mixed  with  ground 
grain  or  molasses  for  best  results,  and  often  too  much  of  it  was  given  by 
inexperienced  feeders  as  a  ration,  as  the  average  owner  of  horses  or  cows 
found  it  difficult  to  realize  that  a  ground  hay  was  essentially  different 
from  just  merely  hay.  And  few  recognized  the  fact  that  alfalfa  hay 
was  not  "just  hay,"  though  no  less  an  authority  than  Hoard's  Dairyman, 
in  the  issue  of  September  22,  1911,  states  that,  because  of  its  high  pro- 
tein content,  ordinarily  around  14  per  cent,  alfalfa  hay  of  good  quality 
is  worth  $70  per  ton  if  timothy  is  selling  at  $20  per  ton.  When  too  much 
alfalfa,  either  in  the  hay  or  meal  form,  is  fed,  particularly  to  horses,  it 
overstimulates  the  animal's  digestive  organs  and  kidneys.  For  the 
above  and  the  further  reason  that  sometimes  the  miller  failed,  through 
inability  or  disinclination,  to  ship  the  quality  of  meal  that  he  had  sold, 
perhaps  a  majority  of  the  small  feed  consumers  were  not  immediately  im- 
pressed with  alfalfa  meal. 

But  in  the  meantime  the  manufacturers  of  concentrated  feeds  of 
various  kinds  were  quick  to  recognize  in  alfalfa  meal  a  product  for  which 
they  had  urgent  need;  a  product  that  contained  protein  in  its  most  de- 
sirable form.  Immediately  they  began  incorporating  it  in  their  mixed 
feeds  with  highly  beneficial  results.  It  practically  revolutionized  the 
mixed-feed  industry.  Under  the  watchful  eye  of  an  expert  chemist  the 
meal  was  added  to  ground  corn,  oats,  barley,  kafir,  wheat  screenings, 
cottonseed  meal,  the  by-products  from  oatmeal  and  other  breakfast-food 
plants,  molasses,  and  even  peat  moss.  It  might  be  putting  it  none  too 
strongly  to  state  that  alfalfa  meal  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the 
exceptional  development  of  the  commercial  mixed-feed  industry  during  the 
past  few  years,  nor  to  maintain  that  the  elimination  of  alfalfa  meal  to- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  445 

day  would  undoubtedly  cause  quite  a  number  of  these  large  concerns  to 
discontinue  business. 

The  total  production  of  alfalfa  meal  in  the  principal  milling  states,, 
exclusive  of  California,  is  estimated,  by  those  in  best  position  to  know, 
at  something  over  200,000  tons  annually.  Of  this  Colorado  produces 
about  one-half,  Wyoming  40,000  tons,  Nebraska  25,000  tons,  Kansas 
20,000  tons,  New  Mexico  and  Oklahoma  each  10,000  tons. 

The  southern  states  are  ordinarily  expected  to  consume  65  to  70  per 
cent  of  this  output,  though  this  year,  owing  to  an  abundance  of  home- 
grown grain  and  forage  crops,  a  smaller  quantity  will  doubtless  suffice. 
The  central  and  eastern  states  furnish  a  market  for  the  rest. 

But,  as  has  already  been  described,  the  meal  now  reaches  the  con- 
sumer almost  entirely  as  an  ingredient  of  a  balanced  mixed  feed.  There- 


FIG.  366.  A  good  plant  that  never  turned  a  wheel,  owing  to  lack  of  alfalfa. 
The  machinery  and  equipment  were  hauled  overland  from  the  railroad  forty  miles 
away. 

fore  the  meal  miller  looks  to  the  mixed-feed  concerns  located  at  large 
distributing  centers  for  his  market.  Eight  such  plants  in  St.  Louis  con- 
sume about  60,000  tons  of  meal  annually,  while  others  are  located  at  such 
points  as  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Chicago,  Memphis,  Nashville,  Pittsburg, 
Peoria,  New  Orleans,  Atlanta  and  Milwaukee.  Several  concerns,  located 
principally  at  Kansas  City,  Omaha  and  Council  Bluffs,  specialize  in  a 
straight  alfalfa  meal  and  molasses  mixture,  which  they  sell  direct  to 
large  cattle  feeders  or  to  mixed-feed  concerns,  which  incorporate  still 
other  ingredients  before  placing  the  balanced  ration  on  the  market. 

All  of  these  balanced  rations  have  a  feed  value,  though  some  are 
better  than  others.  Sometimes  the  reputation  of  alfalfa  meal,  which  is  an 
honest  feed  that  when  unmixed  with  other  products  shows  for  itself  just 
what  it  is,  has  not  been  enhanced  by  the  admixture  of  screenings,  peanut 
hulls,  weed  seeds,  oat  hulls,  etc.  But  with  the  state  and  federal  au- 
thorities watching  more  and  more  carefully  and  intelligently  the  quality 


446  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

of  the  feeds  that  come  under  their  observation,  it  can  safely  be  stated 
that  the  interests  of  the  consumer  were  never  better  protected  than  at  the 
present  time,  even  though  the  manufacturer  of  an  honest  feed  may  some- 
times feel  that  he  is  the  object  of  persecution  because  of  the  restrictions, 
the  registrations,  the  special  taxes  and  the  tagging  systems  that  are  im- 
posed upon  the  industry.  But  this  is  a  single-angled  view  to  take  of  the 
matter,  since  many  of  the  positively  bad  feeds  that  were  on  the  market  a 
few  years  ago  can  no  longer  be  safely  marketed.  Thus  unfair  competi- 
tion is  eliminated,  and  after  all  the  ultimate  consumer  is  pretty  likely 
to  pay  the  added  cost  due  to  state  and  federal  supervision  of  the  industry. 

To  conclude  these  pages  with  a  bit  of  advice  to  the  person  who  con- 
templates engaging  in  alfalfa  milling,  the  writer  would  suggest,  first  of 
all,  a  good  bank  account— say  $15,000  to  $40,000.  Next,  a  favorable 
location  in  an  irrigated  section  of  the  country  where  4000  or  5000  acres 
of  growing  alfalfa  lie  within  a  radius  of  a  half  dozen  miles  from  the  mill. 
The  plant  should  provide  large  facilities  for  the  storage  of  hay  and  the 
sacked  meal  as  sometimes  the  hay  does  not  come  in  fast  enough  and 
at  other  times  cars  for  loading  the  meal  may  be  lacking,  or  the  state 
of  the  market  renders  accumulating  the  meal  desirable.  The  grinder 
should  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  a  half  dozen  tons  of  meal  per 
hour  and,  to  keep  down  the  overhead  expense,  should  be  operated 
day  and  night,  if  possible,  from  August  until  the  following  spring. 
You  may  be  told  that  the  cost  of  milling  and  putting  the  sacked 
meal  aboard  the  cars  is  $3  per  ton,  but  if  you  would  realize  a  fair 
profit  on  the  investment,  pay  yourself  or  someone  else  a  manager's 
salary,  allow  for  depreciation,  and — if  you  can  secure  insurance  pro- 
tection— the  policy  premiums,  better  figure  on  $6  a  ton  between  the  cost 
of  the  hay  delivered  at  the  mill  and  the  cost  of  the  meal  loaded  out  of  the 
mill. 

Then  if  you  are  able  to  contract  for  delivery  of  several  thousand  tons 
of  good  hay  at  the  mill,  and  can  go  to  St.  Louis  or  other  large  market 
and  sell  an  equal  amount  of  meal  at  a  figure  sufficiently  above  the  cost 
of  the  hay,  you  are  in  position  to  "go  to  it."  However,  the  blue  book  of 
alfalfa  milling  fails  as  yet  to  record  the  name  of  any  one  who  has  become 
a  millionaire  because  of  his  activities  as  "hay  miller." 

And  the  midwestern  alfalfa  miller  must  not  overlook  California. 
While  the  writer  is  not  accurately  informed  regarding  alfalfa  milling 
conditions  in  the  coast  state,  he  is  told  that  there  are  some  twenty  mills, 
mostly  portable  and  therefore  capable  of  being  moved  from  one  alfalfa- 
producing  section  to  another,  which  are  becoming  large  producers  of 
meal.  Within  the  past  few  months  California  meal  has  been  shipped  via 
the  Panama  canal  and  offered  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at  figures  one  to 
two  dollars  per  ton  below  the  price  that  must  be  obtained  by  the  Colo- 
rado, Wyoming,  Nebraska  or  Kansas  miller.  (See  "Meal,"  in  index.) 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  447 


THE  KANSAS  CITY  HAY  MARKET. 

By  RICHARD  PRIDE,  in  The  American  Elevator  and  Grain  Trade. 

The  Kansas  City  hay  yards!  I  had  never  seen  them,  nor  had  any 
idea  of  what  such  a  place  would  be.  My  hay  had  always  been  delivered 
in  a  dinky  cart  by  a  German  person  who  stuttered,  so  that  conversation 
on  the  subject  had  been  discouraging1,  even  if  I  had  given  it  thought, 
which  I  had  n't.  But  here  was  a  new  aspect  of  hay.  In  front  of  me 
stretched  long  wagon  lanes,  flanked  on  each  side  by  freight  cars,  hun- 
dreds of  them  in  solid  ranks  of  commercial  power.  Many  of  the  cars 
were  open  and  in  front  of  each  door  was  a  high  pile  of  bales  with  mov- 
ing figures  on  every  pile,  hauling,  checking,  marketing,  each  doing  his 
part  in  the  complex  system  of  the  greatest  hay  market  in  the  world. 

KANSAS  CITY  THE  GATEWAY  FOR   HAY. 

How  does  Kansas  City  happen  to  occupy  this  exalted  place  in  the  hay 
trade  of  the  country?  Replies  came  eagerly  from  many  quarters,  and 
indeed  the  explanation  is  simple  and  quite  obvious.  It  is  on  the  thresh- 
old of  the  prairie,  on  the  very  shore  of  that  sea  of  grass  which  feeds  so 
much  of  the  live  stock  of  the  world.  It  is  in  fact  like  the  hub  of  a  great 
wheel,  whose  spokes  on  one  side  represent  the  lines  of  hay  cars  from  the 
farm  to  the  market,  and  on  the  other  side  the  great  arteries  of  trade 
which  carry  out  the  hay,  north,  east  and  south,  to  the  consuming  centers 
of  the  world.  The  rim  of  this  wheel  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  its  distributing  side  is  bounded  only  by  the 
farthest  market  where  hay  is  needed.  There  is  no  mystery  about  it,  for 
Nature  picked  the  place  long  before  man  saw  the  design  and  set  about 
improving  it. 

But  it  is  one  thing  to  have  opportunity  knock  at  the  door,  and  quite 
another  to  open  the  portal  and  show  it  hospitality.  .And  this  brings  us 
to  a  brief  consideration  of  the  Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association. 

HISTORY  OF  THE    MARKET. 

The  hay  trade  of  the  country  as  a  whole  has  been  curiously  indifferent 
to  the  power  of  cooperative  effort,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  market 
organization.  In  this  Kansas  City  stands  out  a  conspicuous  exception, 
as  for  years  it  stood  alone  as  our  only  organized  exclusive  hay  market. 
In  this  forehandedness  as  much  as  in  its  geographical  location  lies  its 
preeminence. 

A  receiving  market  stands  or  falls  on  a  single  word :  that  word  is 
"service."  To  the  extent  that  it  can  give  shippers  and  buyers  good  serv- 
ice in  rates,  weights,  inspection  and  prices  will  it  progress,  and  no 
farther.  This  service  can  not  be  brought  to  its  highest  point  of  efficiency 
by  individual  effort,  and  twenty-two  years  ago  the  hay  dealers  at  Kan- 
sas City  realized  the  fact. 

On  April  10,  1893,  about  fifty  dealers,  responding  to  a  call  from  a 
few  progressive  spirits,  met  at  the  Midland  Hotel  and  organized  the 
Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association.  J.  B.  Spellman,  the  pioneer 


448 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


449 


i 


450  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

dealer  in  the  community,  was  elected  president  and  Charles  Greicher  was 
the  first  secretary. 

The  value  of  the  association  was  demonstrated  immediately.  An  or- 
ganization known  as  the  Hay  Exchange  had  been  organized  by  some 
stockyard  people,  seemingly  for  the  sole  purpose  of  exploiting  the  busi- 
ness which  the  hay  dealers  had  been  building  up.  They  built  a  ware- 
house that  would  hold  about  1500  tons  of  hay,  and  the  railroads  helped 
the  plan  along  by  issuing  an  order  not  to  allow  any  hay  to  stop  on  team 
tracks.  All  the  receivers  had  to  pay  the  Hay  Exchange  50  cents  per  ton 
for  handling  the  hay,  and  if  the  hay  was  not  removed  within  ten  days 
there  would  be  a  further  charge  of  25  cents  for  each  additional  ten  days. 

This  was  very  pleasant,  in  theory,  for  the  Hay  Exchange,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  they  could  not  make  deliveries,  and  so  the  Hay  Dealers' 
Association  took  it  up  with  the  Railroad  Commission,  who  ordered  the 
railroads  to  set  the  hay  on  team  tracks.  This  put  the  Hay  Exchange 
out  of  business  and  stimulated  the  association  to  further  effort.  The 
lesson  of  cooperation  had  been  learned. 

The  next  step  that  the  association  took  was  to  put  in  three  sets  of 
team-track  scales  for  the  use  of  members,  and  within  a  few  years  an 
inspection  service  was  organized,  which  marked  the  real  beginning  of 
that  efficient  system  which  has  put  the  Kansas  City  market  in  the  lead. 

In  1899  a  constitution  and  by-laws  were  adopted,  and  were  amended 
in  1904.  These  rules  were  milestones  in  the  path  of  progress,  and  were 
the  substantial  basis  of  the  splendid  rules  which  govern  the  market  to- 
day. During  all  these  years  the  railroads  had  made  frequent  attempts 
to  raise  the  rates  or  to  increase  the  minimum  car  weight.  In  every 
emergency  the  association  was  on  the  job  and  induced  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  to  frustrate  the  attempts.  The  most  threatening 
catastrophe  occurred  in  1905,  when  the  state  of  Missouri  passed  a  law 
to  inspect  all  hay  offered  for  sale  in  Missouri.  A  state  inspector  was 
appointed,  but  the  hay  men  refused  to  pay  for  the  inefficient  service 
offered.  The  next  year  G.  Peters,  who  had  been  inspector  for  the  asso- 
ciation, went  into  the  state  service,  and  matters  looked  very  gloomy  until 
1907,  when  Mr.  Peters  was  elected  secretary  of  the  association  to  fill  the 
vacancy  made  by  the  resignation  of  E.  R.  Boynton,  and  at  the  same  time 
took  up  inspection  again  for  the  hay  dealers.  The  next  year  the  state  of 
Missouri  sued  a  member  for  back  bills  for  inspection.  The  suit  was 
thrown  out  on  demurrer,  and  as  a  result  state  hay  inspection  went  out  of 
business.  From  this  time  on,  through  the  activity  of  successive  presi- 
dents and  the  devotion  of  Secretary  Peters,  who  has  continued  in  that 
office,  the  association  has  gained  in  strength  and  prestige.  The  mem- 
bership is  limited  to  sixty,  and  at  the  present  time  each  membership  is 
valued  at  $800. 

RULES  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION.1 

The  rules  of  the  association  have  grown  through  a  process  of  elimina- 
tion and  addition  till  they  are  models  for  strict  justice  and  fairness  be- 
tween buyer  and  seller.  Every  provision  is  made  for  the  protection  of 

1.    See  "Rules  of  Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association,"  in  index. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  451 

the  interests  of  shippers,  and  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  letter  of  every  rule 
is  religiously  adhered  to. 

One  rule  that  is  distinctive  to  this  market  relates  to  the  plugging  of 
cars  for  inspection.  Plugging  is  the  process  of  excavating  a  lane  through 
the  center  of  the  car  so  that  the  hay  from  end  to  end  can  be  inspected. 
Paragraph  C,  rule  3,  section  2,  reads  as  follows : 

"A  regular  inspection  means  that  the  inspector  shall  inspect  a  car  on 
the  plug.  He  shall  examine  all  the  hay,  or  straw,  taken  out  of  the  car 
and  shall  get  up  into  the  car  that  he  may  see  all  the  different  kinds  shown 
and  note  their  condition,  in  order  that  his  inspection  shall  be  thorough, 
complete  and  impartial,  and  about  which  there  can  be  no  mistake  or  ques- 
tion, and  shall  register  the  grade  in  the  regular  inspection  column  of  the 
inspection  book." 

The  plugging,  weighing  and  warehouse  rules  are  very  specific  and 
exacting,  and  the  liability  of  error  in  every  department  of  the  service  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum  which  is  almost  negligible. 

The  day's  routine  at  the  yards  is  interesting,  particularly  to  shippers, 
for  it  shows  with  what  care  all  these  details  are  attended  to. 

At  6:30  in  the  morning  the  weighmasters  are  on  duty  at  the  "Katy" 
tracks,  and  at  seven  weighmasters,  watchmen,  pluggers  and  inspectors 
are  at  their  places  in  all  the  yards  ready  to  start  in  the  business  of  the 
day.  The  watchmen  locate  all  new  car  arrivals  on  the  inspection  tracks, 
mark  the  car  with  consignee's  pro  number  and  make  a  record  of  num- 
ber, initials,  track  number,  name  of  consignee,  condition  of  car,  and 
whether  full  or  not.  This  information  he  gives  to  the  weighmaster 
under  whom  he  works,  and  before  eight  o'clock  reports  all  cars  to  the 
secretary  of  the  association.  He  sees  that  each  new  car  is  opened  and 
properly  plugged  for  inspection,  if  the  weather  permits. 

The  inspectors  are  in  all  the  yards  at  the  stroke  of  seven,  and  im- 
mediately begin  going  through  the  plugged  cars  to  grade  the  hay  that 
they  contain.  Practically  the  entire  contents  of  the  oar  are  inspected. 
The  advantage  of  this  method  over  the  car-door  inspection  is  obvious. 
Rain  or  dampness  may  stain  the  hay  next  the  door,  and  a  car  of  choice 
alfalfa  might  get  only  a  standard  grade,  or  No.  1  prairie  a  lower 
grade,  if  the  bales  at  the  door  alone  were  inspected.  While  this  method 
protects  the  buyer  against  a  dishonestly  loaded  car,  the  greatest  advan- 
tage in  the  system  accrues  to  the  honest  shipper,  who  can  be  sure  that  his 
hay  will  be  graded  to  its  full  value. 

Before  the  association  took  hold  of  the  methods  of  trading  in  hay  on 
the  market,  car-door  inspections  and  sales  were  made.  This  led  to  fre- 
quent rejections  by  purchasers,  and  consequent  resales  at  greatly  reduced 
prices.  It  became  evident  that  to  build  up  the  market  this  trouble  must 
be  obviated.  From  this  sprung  the  system  of  plugging  cars,  which  has 
resulted  in  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  marketing  hay  known.  A 
car  which  is  sold  on  "plugging"  examination  is  the  property  of  the  pur- 
chaser without  recourse,  except  in  flagrant  cases  of  misrepresentation  in 
loading.  Fully  95  per  cent  of  the  cars  now  handled  here  are  unloaded 
at  a  uniform  price  of  85  cents  without  car  service  charges.  This  record 
can  not  be  approached  by  that  of  any  other  market.  This  system  has 


452 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


453 


been  built  and  it  is  being  maintained  at  considerable  expense  by  the 
association.    It  has  saved  shippers  thousands  of  dollars. 

But  these  employees  of  the  association  are  not  the  only  ones  who  are 
down  to  work  at  an  early  hour.  Hay  trading  isn't  like  banking,  where 
all  things  come  to  him  who  waits.  If  a  hay  dealer  wants  business  he 
must  be  up  with  the  birds,  for  the  competition  at  the  yards  is  sharp,  and 
late  comers  lose  the  choice  pickings  both  of  sales  and  purchases.  The 
traders,  armed  with  their  notifications  of  arrivals,  and  purchasing  orders, 
make  the  rounds  of  the  yards,  giving  a  certain  amount  of  time  to  each 
one.  A  dozen  dealers  may  have  orders  for  certain  grades  of  hay,  and 
the  bidding  for  that  grade  is  as  keen  as  possible.  There  is  nothing  cut 
and  dried  about  it,  the  whole  business  is  open  and  strictly  competitive, 
and  every  shipper  can  be  assured  of  as  high  a  price  for  his  shipment  as 
the  demand  of  the  market  will  warrant.  Of  course  there  are  times  when 
there  is  a  surplus  of  certain  grades.  Then  the  market  sags.  But  the 
traders  are  not  responsible;  they  must  follow  the  inexorable  law  of 
supply  and  demand,  but  so  far  as  far-reaching  system  can  control,  the 
hay  market  of  Kansas  City  is  in  a  position  to  give  its  patrons  the  very 
best  of  the  market. 

THE  VOLUME   OF   BUSINESS. 

An  idea  of  what  this  system  means  can  be  gained  by  a  glance  at  the 
following  figures : 

TABLE  No.  51.     Kansas  City  hay  receipts,  by  kinds  and  carloads,  for  10  years. 


Clover  anc 

YEAR. 

Prairie. 

Alfalfa. 

Clover. 

timothy 

Timothy. 

Straw. 

Total. 

mixed. 

1915 

21  872 

12,131 

81 

442 

,058 

838 

36  422 

1914  

13,088 

11,558 

106 

483 

,442 

683 

27,360 

1913 

13,200 

9,270 

210 

1   156 

925 

597 

26  353 

1912  

20,095 

8,016 

140 

670 

,700 

561 

31,182 

1911 

16,819 

6,227 

227 

970 

,688 

442 

26  373 

1910 

15  074 

3  990 

136 

883 

455 

500 

23  038 

1909  

11,069 

2,884 

90 

733 

,294 

374 

16,444 

1908 

9  112 

2  550 

140 

1  096 

738 

315 

14  950 

1907  

12,417 

2,841 

124 

867 

2,840 

522 

19,611 

1906  

11,197 

2,257 

53 

474 

1.945 

415 

16,188 

This  hay  comes  from  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Colorado, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  Iowa,  Montana,  and  even 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  It  is  distributed  to  every  state  in  the  South 
and  East.  The  development  of  outlets  for  this  great  volume  of  hay  shows 
the  great  ability  of  the  Kansas  City  dealers  and  the  splendid  results  of 
their  inspection  and  handling  systems.  The  latter  are  unsurpassed. 

The  railroad  facilities  of  Kansas  City  give  the  traders  there  an  ad- 
vantage over  all  but  two  or  three  markets  in  the  country.  Sixteen  trunk 
lines  converge  at  this  point,  besides  numerous  branches.  These  lines 
reach  by  direct  routing  to  the  farthest  bounds  of  the  country.  At  first 
the  roads  were  rather  averse  to  handling  hay,  but  as  the  magnitude  of 
the  business  was  gradually  impressed  upon  them,  they  have  cooperated 
fully  with  the  association.  In  the  past  ten  years  the  capacity  of  the 
hay  tracks  has  been  doubled.  At  the  present  time  a  total  of  700  cars  per 


454  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

day  can  be  handled.  The  various  hay  yards  are  laid  parallel,  the  Santa 
Fe  having  a  capacity  for  150  cars,  the  Missouri  Pacific  for  120,  the 
Union  Pacific,  Rock  Island  and  'Frisco  for  75  cars  each,  and  the  other 
roads  for  lesser  numbers. 

PRAIRIE   AND  ALFALFA   HAY. 

The  hay  trade  of  Kansas  City  has  grown  largely  with  the  increasing 
popularity  of  prairie  hay  and  alfalfa.  The  hay  baler  has  also  much  to 
do  with  the  growth  of  the  hay  business  throughout  the  country,  but  the 
energy  of  western  shippers  in  advertising  the  value  of  prairie  hay  and 
encouraging  the  growth  of  alfalfa  has  been  the  great  factor  in  making 
Kansas  City  the  hay  center  of  the  country. 

Prairie  hay  is  native  to  the  plains.  The  feeding  value  is  not  so  great 
as  that  of  the  legumes  or  timothy,  and  for  many  years  it  was  set  at  a 
much  lower  estimate  than  it  deserves.  Now,  however,  thanks  to  the 
consistent  pressure  of  good  advertising,  it  has  gained  the  recognition  and 
commands  a  price  commensurate  with  its  value.  From  offerings  at  $2  per 
ton  with  little  demand  in  former  years,  prairie  reached  as  high  as  $24.50 
in  1912,  and  holds  a  place  consistently  at  about  $2  to  $4  under  timothy 
and  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  deserves  far  more  space  than  we  have  at  our  disposal,  for  it 
is  unquestionably  the  king  of  hays,  in  feeding  value,  productiveness,  soil 
upbuilding  and  economy.  It  ranks  with  wheat  bran  in  protein  content, 
and  mixed  with  a  corn  ration  is  the  greatest  feed  in  the  world. 

The  history  of  alfalfa  is  interesting,  but  its  familiarity  makes  it  un- 
necessary to  repeat  it  here.  Although  one  of  the  oldest  feeding  stuffs 
known,  if  we  may  believe  the  archaeologists  and  ancient  historians,  its  use 
in  this  country  is  of  recent  origin,  and  even  yet  is  not  so  widely  grown 
or  used  as  its  value  warrants.  Each  year,  however,  sees  an  increased 
acreage  and  greater  popularity  among  feeders,  so  that  the  Kansas  City 
market,  which  has  been  foremost  in  developing  knowledge  and  interest 
in  the  legumes,  will  continue  to  reap  the  benefits. 

The  largest  handlers  of  alfalfa  in  the  world  are  at  Kansas  City,  and 
if  the  market  had  no  other  mark  of  distinction  than  this  it  would  always 
be  famous  as  the  first  to  welcome  and  nourish  alfalfa.  (See  "Market- 
ing," in  index.) 


MARKETING  ALFALFA  HAY,  FROM  THE  BUYER'S 
STANDPOINT. 

By  J.  A.  BRUBAKEB,  of  J.  A.  Brubaker  &  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Clearly  to  point  out  the  greatest  good  to  the  alfalfa  producer  from  a 
buyer's  standpoint  we  must  not  only  study  the  world's  greatest  hay 
market — namely,  Kansas  City — but  also  the  hay  salesman,  as  well  as  the 
hay  buyer,  the  salesman  representing  the  producer  and  the  buyer  the 
consumer,  each  recognizing  that  his  success  depends  on  his  ability  to 
satisfy  his  client.  In  fact,  they  must  each  guard  the  interests  of  their 
clients  to  hold  their  trade.  These  two  representatives,  governed  by  rules 
of  the  Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association,  protecting  both  the  pro- 
ducer and  the  consumer,  have  made  this  market  famous. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  455 

The  amount  of  Kansas  alfalfa  coming  to  the  Kansas  City  market 
varies  with  the  season.  The  heaviest  recepits  of  alfalfa  in  1914  were 
from  Colorado;  in  1915,  as  nearly  as  I  can  estimate,  about  60  per  cent 
of  the  alfalfa  arriving  here  originated  in  Kansas.  The  counties  of  Kan- 
sas that  are  shipping  the  bulk  of  the  alfalfa  coming  to  this  market 
are  Lyon,  Marion,  Greenwood,  Chautauqua,  Cowley,  Harper,  Morris, 
Saline,  Wabaunsee,  Ottawa,  Clay,  Marshall,  Republic,  Osborne,  Phillips, 
Chase,  Butler,  Elk,  Sumner,  Barber,  Dickinson,  Geary,  Shawnee,  Cloud, 
Riley,  Washington,  Mitchell,  and  Smith. 

Let  us  assume  that  75  to  85  per  cent  of  the  hay  arriving  here  is  sold 
for  reshipment,  and  that  the  buyer  knows  whether  the  consumer  wants 
the  hay  for  horses,  mules,  cattle,  or  fancy  dairy  feeding.  The  require- 
ments and  points  he  most  considers  are:  feeding  value,  regardless  of 
color;  the  general  character  and  condition;  the  loading,  whether  full 
minimum  weight,  whether  bales  loaded  flat  or  on  edge,  the  size  of  the 
bales  (75-pound  preferred) ;  and  whether  well  baled.  Etc  watches  for 
musty  or  grass-mixed  hay,  for  stack-spotted  bales,  for  floor  bales,  ground 
bales,  or  otherwise  stained  bales.  To  get  a  more  practical  understand- 
ing of  the  buyer's  needs  the  reader  might  imagine  himself  in  Kansas 
City  and  follow  the  writer  to  the  hay  tracks  where  the  trading  is  done. 

First  let  me  explain  that  all  hay  coming  to  this  market  is  placed  on 
team  track  for  inspection  and  sale.  A  gang  of  men,  called  "pluggers," 
pulls  out  fifty  to  seventy  bales  and  piles  them  on  the  pavement.  The 
car  is  opened  from  end  to  end.  The  inspector  examines  and  grades  each 
car.  The  hay,  however,  is  not  sold  on  his  inspection,  but  is  sold  on  its 
merits.  The  buyer  and  salesman  thoroughly  examine  the  car,  the  one 
arguing  in  favor  of  the  quality  and  the  other  against  it,  until  finally  the 
trade  is  made.  Here  are  some  practical  illustrations: 

First  illustration:  Here  is  a  car  plugged  out.  We  call  every  buyer  on 
the  market,  but  they  pass  by.  They  do  not  even  get  into  the  car.  They 
are  not  interested.  We  work  on  it  the  second  day  with  the  same  results; 
and  the  third  day,  plugged  out  again.  No  one  wants  it.  What  is  the 
matter?  The  hay  is  musty,  damaged,  hot,  has  no  color.  There  is  no 
cheap-feed  demand.  It  is  a  car  of  hay  on  which  the  commission  man 
may  earn  his  commission  but  upon  which  he  often  loses  his  reputation  as 
a  hay  salesman.  It  is  the  kind  of  hay  the  producer  should  sell  or  feed 
at  home. 

Second  illustration:  This  car  is  of  fairly  good  color,  with  high  feed- 
ing value,  but  the  plug  shows  a  few  bales  slightly  stack-stained,  or  a  few 
ground-stained  or  otherwise  stained  bales.  It  is  sold  at  $1  to  $2  per  ton 
under  what  it  would  have  brought  had  a  few  bales  been  kept  at  home. 
It  officially  grades  "standard  alfalfa,  part  stained."  In  other  words,  do 
not  spoil  a  good  car  of  hay  with  a  few  off  bales. 

Third  illustration:  Here  is  a  car  of  high-colored  alfalfa,  attracting 
four  or  five  buyers.  It  is  finally  sold  at  $12.  It  would  have  brought  $1 
per  ton  more  had  it  not  been  for  the  fact  the  bales  are  loaded  flat  instead 
of  on  edge,  and  a  further  fact  that  the  hay  was  sweaty.  Remember,  hay 
damages  worse  when  bales  are  loaded  flat.  It  officially  grades  "No. 
1  alfalfa,  part  hot."  »$ 


456  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Fourth  illustration:  This  car  is  strictly  uniform,  good  stock,  attract- 
ing several  buyers,  but  it  sells  at  some  reduction,  for  the  reason  the  car 
is  loaded  below  minimum  weight  and  the  bill  of  lading  is  not  protected  by 
inserting  "smaller-sized  car  ordered,"  naming  size  of  car  ordered.  Re- 
member the  buyer  must  pay  excess  freight  to  its  final  destination,  and 
the  producer  must  stand  the  difference,  which  is  considered  in  the  sell- 
ing price.  Remember  also  that  hay  poorly  baled  will  cause  a  loss  by 
breakage  and  that  many  markets  do  not  pay  for  broken  bales.  The  car 
officially  grades  "No.  1  alfalfa." 

Fifth  illustration:  Here  is  a  car  of  hay  that  really  needs  no  intro- 
duction. It  has  the  color,  the  feeding  value,  is  of  uniform  grade  and  is 
loaded  to  full  minumum  weight.  It  attracts  all  buyers.  They  bid  for 
it,  and  it  finally  sells  at  50  cents  to  $1  per  ton  above  market  quotations. 
This  should  be  an  incentive  to  the  producer,  as  a  premium  is  generally 
paid  for  such  high-class  goods.  It  officially  grades  "choice  alfalfa." 

The  above  show  how  the  hay  buyer  must  work  for  the  interest  of  the 
consumer  and  how  the  hay  salesman  must  work  for  the  interest  of  the 
producer.  Now  let  us  see  for  whose  interest  the  Kansas  City  Hay  Deal- 
ers' Association  is  working.  In  this  connection  we  find  it  has  established 
scales,  weighmasters,  track  watchmen  and  inspection.  It  has  brought 
about  uniform  minimum  weights.  It  has  fought  inspection  bills  at 
Jefferson  City,  which  otherwise  would  have  cost  the  producer  50  cents 
per  car  extra.  It  has  fought  advances  in  freight  rates,  both  directly  and 
also  through  the  Kansas  City  Transportation  Bureau,  at  a  cost  of  thou- 
sands of  dollars,  resulting  in  the  building  up  of  the  world's  greatest  hay 
market  for  the  producer.  Not  only  does  the  association  work  for  the  pro- 
ducer, but  its  individual  members  also  work  for  the  producer. 

The  question  may  arise:  Can  a  producer  ship  his  own  hay  to  market 
and  obtain  the  same  results  as  a  regular  shipper?  My  judgment  is  that 
he  can.  Often  he  can  do  it  better,  if  he  will  take  a  personal  interest  in 
preparing  his  hay  for  market  and  observing  the  following  rules: 

1.  Always  load  bales  on  edge. 

2.  Load  cars  of  uniform  grade.     Otherwise  advise  amount  of  each 
grade  loaded. 

3.  Load  cars  full  minimum  weight  or  have  bill  of  lading  protected  by 
agent. 

4.  Send  itemized  list  of  bales  and  weights  with  bill  of  lading. 

5.  Do  not  load  any  damaged  or  spotted  bales  with  good  hay. 

6.  Do  not  bale  hay  containing  artificial  moisture,  caused  by  dew  or 
rain.     Remember  that  hay  will  cure  and  take  care  of  its  own  moisture, 
while  artificial  moisture  is  damaging. 

Careful  baling  and  loading  are  also  important.  We  often  receive  con- 
signments even  of  "No.  2  alfalfa"  so  carefully  baled  and  loaded  that  it 
sells  for  one  of  two  grades  higher.  This  also  applies  to  other  grades. 

I  suggest  to  the  producer  that  before  consigning  a  car  of  hay  to 
market  that  he  first  prepare  his  hay  as  nearly  as  possible  as  suggested; 
and  then  carefully  select  a  reliable  dealer— one  that  is  working  for  the 
general  good — and  be  sure  such  dealer  is  a  member  of  the  Kansas  City 
Hay  Dealers'  Association,  thus  affording  absolute  protection. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  457 

Rules  of  the  Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association  for  grading  alfalfa 
hay: 

Choice  alfalfa  shall  be  reasonably  fine,  leafy  alfalfa  of  bright  green 
color,  properly  cured,  sound,  sweet,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  alfalfa  shall  be  reasonably  coarse  alfalfa  of  a  bright  green  color, 
or  reasonably  fine,  leafy  alfalfa  of  a  good  color,  and  may  contain  2  per 
cent  of  foreign  grasses;  5  per  cent  of  air-bleached  hay  on  outside  of  bale 
allowed,  but  must  be  sound  and  well  baled. 

Standard  alfalfa  may  be  of  green  color,  of  coarse  or  medium  texture, 
and  may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter;  or  it  may  be  of  green  color, 
of  coarse  or  medium  texture,  20  per  cent  bleached  and  2  per  cent  foreign 
matter;  or  it  may  be  of  greenish  cast,  of  fine  stem  and  clinging  foliage, 
and  may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter.  All  to  be  sound,  sweet,  and 
well  baled. 

No.  2  alfalfa  shall  be  of  any  sound,  sweet  and  well-baled  alfalfa,  not 
good  enough  for  standard,  and  may  contain  10  per  cent  foreign  matter. 

No.  3  alfalfa  may  contain  25  per  cent  stack-spotted  hay,  but  must  be 
dry  and  not  to  contain  more  than  8  per  cent  of  foreign  matter ;  or  it  may 
be  of  a  green  color  and  may  contain  50  per  cent  of  foreign  matter;  or  it 
may  be  set  alfalfa  and  may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter.  All  to  be 
reasonably  well  baled. 

No  grade  alfalfa  shall  include  all  alfalfa  not  good  enough  for  No.  3. 

(See  "Marketing,"  in  index.) 


MARKETING  ALFALFA  HAY,  FROM  THE  SHIPPER'S 
STANDPOINT. 

By  A.  B.  HALL,  Manager  Lyon  County  Farmers'  Produce  Association,  Emporia. 

No  one  realizes  so  much  the  loss  by  careless  handling  and  poor  judg- 
ment in  caring  for  alfalfa  hay  as  the  shipper.  In  Lyon  county  our  first 
crop  is  usually  harvested  about  the  15th  of  May,  if  the  weather  is  favor- 
able and  other  work  out  of  the  way.  This  year  (1915)  some  growers  cut 
as  early  as  May  1,  and  others  did  not  get  through  until  about  July  1  and 
harvested  two  crops  together,  on  account  of  the  very  wet  season.  On 
account  of  the  first  crop  coming  on  so  early  in  the  spring,  when  the  days 
are  short  and  the  nights  cool,  together  with  heavy  dews,  it  is  very  dif- 
ficult to  get  all  well  cured,  keep  the  green  color,  and  save  the  leaves.  To 
have  high-grade  alfalfa  one  must  have  the  "clinging  foliage"  and  the 
color,  and  the  man  who  has  not  the  patience  to  wait  until  just  the  right 
time,  and  who  has  not  the  judgment  to  know  just  the  right  time,  will 
never  succeed  in  producing  high-grade  alfalfa  hay. 

It  is  a  fact  that  some  farmers  never  have  any  first-grade  alfalfa,  for 
the  simple  reason  they  do  not  care  for  it  when  it  should  be  raked,  and 
often  a  good  grade  will  be  spoiled  by  sun-cured  streaks  through  the  bales 
and  depreciate  the  value  as  much  as  $2  per  ton,  when  there  is  no  other 
reason  than  carelessness  or  lack  of  judgment.  Any  one  can  mow  hay, 
but  the  man  who  knows  just  when  to  rake  it,  and  does  it,  to  get  the  most 
leaves  and  save  the  color,  is  the  man  to  be  patterned  after. 


458  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

The  most  economical  way  is  to  bale  from  the  windrow.  Here  again 
judgment  must  be  used.  We  have  learned  that  hay  can  be  baled  as  green 
as  when  stacked,  but  "judgment"  again  must  be  used  in  caring  for  it  after 
the  baling.  It  is  a  fact  that  if  hay  is  put  in  large  stacks  or  put  in  the 
mow  with  a  fork,  that  where  the  large  forkfuls  fall  it  will  shatter  the 
leaves  and  press  down  so  hard  that  it  will  exclude  the  air  and  cause  the 
hay  to  burn,  and  will  come  out  brown  instead  of  green;  whereas,  if  it  is 
baled  instead  of  stacked,  piled  on  edge  in  the  same  position  that  it  comes 
from  the  press,  and  piled  loosely  to- allow  air  to  pass  through  the  pile, 
this  hay  will  be  in  better  shape  than  the  hay  that  is  put  loose  in  the 
barn.  The  difficulty  in  putting  hay  loose  in  the  barn  and  baling  after- 
ward is,  first,  the  extra  expense;  second,  it  is  hard  to  find  a  time  when 
the  hay  can  be  baled  to  save  all  the  leaves  like  when  it  is  raked  at  the 
right  time  and  baled  from  the  windrow. 


FIG.  370.  Usually  the  baler  is  kept  busy  all  the  afternoon,  and  the  bales  are 
covered  with  tarpaulins  over  night,  and  hauled-in  the  next  morning  by  the  extra 
men,  while  the  mowers  are  busy  getting  down  more  hay. 

It  is  usually  the  case  that  the  baler  is  kept  busy  all  the  afternoon,  and 
that  bales  are  covered  with  tarpaulins  over  night,  and  are  hauled-in  the 
next  morning  by  the  extra  men,  while  the  mowers  are  busy  getting  down 
more  hay.  When  hay  is  to  be  piled  in  the  field  overnight,  loose  hay  should 
be  piled  under  the  bales  to  keep  moisture  from  being  drawn  from  the 
ground.  In  storing  baled  hay,  unless  it  is  good  and  dry,  it  should  be  piled 
in  the  barn  loosely  to  prevent  heating,  and  later  repiled  more  closely  if 
storage  room  is  scarce. 

The  first  crop  of  alfalfa  hay  is,  as  a  rule,  not  salable  early  in  the 
season,  and  should  be  sold  in  the  winter  season  for  best  results.  This 
crop  is  best  adapted  for  horse  and  mule  feeding,  as  it  is  richer  in  protein 
than  the  later  crops.  To  bring  the  best  price  alfalfa  hay  must  be  cut 
before  the  stems  get  harsh.  The  dairymen  will  not  use  harsh  or  woody 
hay,  but  will  pay  fancy  prices  for  "soft,"  fine-stemmed  alfalfa.  Our 
farmers  here  feed  the  off -colored  alfalfa,  having  learned  that  the  color 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  459 

makes  no  great  difference  where  the  hay  has  been  properly  cured  and 
baled  dry. 

With  the  second  and  the  later  crops  we  have  very  different  conditions. 
The  days  are  much  longer  and  the  ground  usually  drier,  and  the  stems 
finer,  making  it  much  easier  to  cure.  If  the  weather  is  favorable  we 
can  ship  these  crops  from  the  windrow  direct,  as  there  is  always  a  de- 
mand for  good,  high-grade  alfalfa  hay. 

The  "five-man"  hay  press  is  a  curse  to  this  country.  To  get  them  to 
pull  into  your  field  you  must  have  twenty  acres  cut  down  at  one  time.'  If 
something  happens  that  they  are  a  day  behind  time  your  hay  is  in  the 
windrow  "sunburning,"  and  it  will  show  in  every  bale,  or  it  is  too  dry 
and  the  leaves  are  wasting.  We  have  seen  twenty  acres  of  alfalfa  in  the 
swath  and  windrow,  a  big  press  just  starting  on  the  job,  and  a  rain  in 
sight.  This  means  a  loss  of  not  less  than  $100.  We  advocate  smaller 
presses.  Instead  of  cutting  down  twenty  acres,  make  it  ten.  Then  if 
the  rain  slips  up  on  you  there  is  only  half  the  loss,  with  a  prospect  of 


FIG.  371.    Feeding  a  power  baler. 

getting  the  other  ten  up  when  the  weather  is  better.  We  believe  we  are  in 
a  position  to  criticize  when  we  have  shipped  hay  by  the  hundred  cars, 
and  no  one  knows  the  loss  to  the  farmers  more  than  we  do. 

A  hay  rack  for  baled  hay  should  be  made  with  a  tight  floor,  and  at 
the  edge  a  2  by  4  should  be  used  to  make  it  stronger  and  keep  the  bales 
from  slipping.  To  load  bales  to  ride  well  one  should  load  the  end  of  the 
bale  that  comes  from  the  press  first  on  the  inside,  and  turn  the  bale  over 
and  put  the  top,  or  rough,  edge  down  and  the  large  end  out.  After  the 
first  tier  is  complete,  pile  a  row  lengthways  of  the  wagon,  four  bales 
wide,  laid  flat,  and  the  full  length  of  the  rack,  which  ties  the  load.  Then 
pile  the  next  tier  crossways,  the  same  as  the  first  tier. 

We  prefer  the  36-foot  car  to  load.  Instead  of  crowding  in  all  the 
bales  we  can,  we  place  six  bales  edgeways  across  the  end  of  the  car. 
This  will  leave  a  space  between  each  bale.  Finish  the  tier  the  same 
way,  all  edgeways,  six  bales  wide  and  five  high,  making  thirty  to  the 
tier.  If  the  hay  is  properly  baled  there  is  no  trouble  in  getting  the 
minimum,  22,000  pounds,  in  the  car.  If  the  bales  should  be  less  than  60- 
pound,  order  a  high,  40-foot  car,  which  takes  a  minimum  of  24,000 
pounds,  and  will  hold  about  one-fourth  more. 


460  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


FIG.  372.    Place  the  bales  on  the  wagon  so  that  the  load  is  tied  and  will  ride  well. 

In  conclusion  I  would  say  that  too  many  farmers  use  the  same  meth- 
ods in  taking  care  of  their  alfalfa  that  they  used  in  taking  care  of 
prairie  hay  years  ago — mow  a  lot  down,  rush  it  up  in  any  shape,  then 
wonder  why  there  is  a  difference  of  $6  per  ton  between  fancy  and  com- 
mon hay.  Every  farmer  should  spend  some  time  on  a  large  market  and 
see  how  the  buyers  will  stop  when  they  come  to  an  extra  fine  car  of 
alfalfa  hay.  Out  of  150  cars  of  hay  one  may  not  find  this  car  of  fancy 
hay  every  day,  but  you  will  find  the  man  who  takes  the  best  care 
of  his  hay  gets  the  most  money  for  it.  The  old  saying,  "Anything  well 
bought  is  half  sold,"  let  us  change  to  "Alfalfa  hay  well  made  is  half  sold." 
(See  "Marketing,"  in  index.) 


I  will  say  that  I  have  yet  to  learn  the  value  of  alfalfa.  It  is  the  main 
stand-by  of  this  dry  country.  My  alfalfa  has  made  good  on  all  the  land 
that  I  have,  at  the  rate  of  fully  ten  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of  one  hun- 
dred dollars  per  acre. — A  Rawlins  county  correspondent. 

Too  much  can  not  be  said  about  the  usefulness  of  alfalfa  as  a  stock  feed 
and  as  a  pasture  for  grazing  hogs.  It  reduces  the  cost  of  hog  production 
one-half,  in  my  estimation,  and  keeps  them  healthy  and  in  good  growing 
condition.  There  is  no  roughage  that  equals  alfalfa  for  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.  Furthermore,  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  renewing  worn- 
out  soils,  as  nothing  will  renew  depleted  wheat  lands  so  cheaply  as  will 
alfalfa. — A  Russell  county  correspondent. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  461 


MEASURING  HAY. 

By  A.  M.  TEN  EYCK,  in  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  155. 

The  rules  for  measuring  hay  in  the  stack  may  vary  according  to  the 
length  of  time  the  hay  has  been  stacked,  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  hay, 
and  also  according  to  the  character  of  the  stack.  With  alfalfa  hay  which 
has  been  stacked  for  thirty  days  it  is  usual  to  compute  an  8-foot  cube, 
or  512  cubic  feet,  as  a  ton.  When  the  hay  has  been  stacked  five  or  six 
months  a  7^ -foot  cube,  or  422  cubic  feet,  is  usually  calculated  for  a  ton. 
In  old,  fully-settled  stacks  it  is  usual  to  allow  a  7-foot  cube,  343  cubic  feet, 
for  a  ton;  or  sometimes,  in  very  large  stacks  or  mows,  only  216  cubic  feet, 
a  6-foot  cube,  are  allowed  per  ton  in  weight. 

The  volume  of  mow  is  readily  secured  by  multiplying  together  the 
length,  width  and  height.  There  are  different  methods  for  measuring  hay 
in  the  stack,  depending  upon  the  shape  of  the  stack  and  also  upon  its  size. 
With  a  long  stack  or  rick  the  usual  method  is  to  throw  a  line  over  the 
stack,  measuring  the  distance  in  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  stack  on  one 
side  to  the  bottom  on  the  other ;  add  to  this  the  average  width  of  the  stack 
in  feet,  divide  this  sum  by  4  (which  gives  one  side  of  the  square),  and 
multiply  the  quotient  by  itself,  and  this  product  by  the  length  of  the  stack 
in  feet.  This  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  stack,  which  may 
be  divided  by  512,  422,  or  343  (the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton),  in 
order  to  find  the  number  of  tons.  For  small,  low  ricks  the  rule  is  to  sub- 
tract the  width  from  the  "over,"  divide  by  2,  multiply  by  the  width,  and 
multiply  the  product  by  the  length,  dividing  the  result  by  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  in  a  ton. 

There  is  no  established  rule  for  measuring  round  stacks,  but  this  one 
will  approximate  the  contents  of  a  stack  of  ordinary  conical  form:  Find 
the  circumference  at  or  above  the  base  or  "bulge,"  at  a  height  that  will 
average  the  base  from  there  to  the  ground ;  find  the  vertical  height  of  the 
measured  circumference  from  the  ground,  and  the  slant  height  from  the 
measured  circumference  to  the  top  of  the  stack,  taking  all  measurements 
in  feet.  Multiply  the  circumference  by  itself  and  divide  by  100  and 
multiply  by  8,  then  multiply  the  result  by  the  height  of  the  base,  plus  one- 
third  of  the  slant  height  of  top.  The  hay  in  a  round  stack  is  usually  less 
compact  than  in  a  rectangular  stack,  hence  a  greater  number  of  feet 
should  be  allowed  for  a  ton,  with  well-settled  hay  probably  512  cubic  feet. 

The  rules  given  may  also  be  used  in  measuring  any  kind  of  hay,  or 
cane  or  kafir  fodder,  but  with  cane  or  kafir  only  approximate  results  may 
be  secured  by  stack  measurements,  because  the  fodder  is  apt  to  vary 
greatly  in  weight  according  to  the  moisture  it  contains. 


462  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


ALFALFA'S  EFFECT  UPON  THE  SOIL. 

By  J.  T.  WILLARD,  Dean  of  the  Division  of  General  Science  and  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

The  most  imperative  duty  of  all  cultivators  of  the  soil  is  to  conduct 
their  art  in  such  a  manner  as  to  conserve  fertility.  The  world  can  no 
longer  send  its  waves  of  surplus  population  over  unpeopled  areas  or 
against  savage  aborigines.  At  least  if  the  foregoing  is  not  literally  true, 
it  will  be  within  a  century,  and  at  the  present  time  the  effect  of  di- 
minished returns  from  the  soil  must  be  corrected  by  treating  the  soil, 
not  by  abandoning  it  and  exploiting  fresh  areas. 

That  crops,  differ  in  their  effect  upon  a  soil  is  well  known,  and  the 
benefits  following  seeding  to  grass,  especially  if  clover  accompanies  it, 
and  from  growing  clovers  alone,  have  been  known  from  time  immemorial. 
There  are  several  elements  that  participate  in  the  general  results,  and  a 
clear  recognition  of  these  is  not  always  made  by  practical  men.  Lack  of 
knowledge  on  some  phases  of  the  practice  leads  to  misapplication  of 
effort,  and  misunderstanding  of  the  results  obtained.  To  set  some  of 
these  considerations  in  a  clear  light  is  the  object  of  this  article. 

All  crops  take  up  from  the  soil  certain  chemical  elements  necessary 
to  their  growth.  These  are  deposited  in  the  roots,  stems,  leaves  and 
seeds,  and  in  so  far  as  these  parts  are  removed  from  the  land  it  suffers 
a  loss  of  the  absorbed  material.  Some  of  the  elements  in  plants  come 
from  the  air,  and  of  these  there  is  thus  an  amount  available  that  is  prac- 
tically unlimited.  The  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen  of  plants  are  fur- 
nished chiefly  by  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air,  and  water  in  the  air  and  soil. 
The  nitrogen  of  plants  may  be  traced  to  the  atmosphere  as  its  original 
source,  but  the  soil  contains  the  immediate  supply  of  this  element  for 
most  species  of  plants.  The  phosphorus  and  sulphur  which  plants  con- 
tain comes  entirely  from  the  earth,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  metals, 
iron,  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium  and  calcium.  In  considering  the 
problem  of  the  fertility  of  the  land,  the  chemical  elements  usually  con- 
sidered are  calcium,  potassium,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen.  The  residue 
from  plant  or  animal  life  existing  as  the  humus  or  organic  matter  of 
the  soil  is  of  high  importance  also.  This  contains  much  carbon,  and 
more  or  less  of  all  of  the  chemical  elements  which  enter  into  the  plants. 

The  purpose  of  crop  production  is  to  obtain  something  that  may  be 
removed  from  the  soil  and  converted  to  the  use  of  man.  Any  crop  that 
is  raised  merely  to  be  plowed  under  is  a  means  to  the  general  end  of  ob- 
taining something  that  may  be  removed.  It  is  this  removal  of  material 
that  lies  at  the  foundation  of  soil  exhaustion.  Unfortunately  agricul- 
tural operations  also  cause  loss  of  material  that  never  gets  into  the 
crops.  The  relation  of  alfalfa-growing  to  soil  fertility  will  now  be  pre- 
sented in  the  light  of  the  foregoing  fundamental  considerations. 

Alfalfa  is  commonly  classified  as  a  legume,  and  belongs  to  one  of  the 
most  important  families  of  plants,  many  species  of  which  are  of  great 
economic  value  to  man  as  sources  of  food  for  himself  or  domestic  ani- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


463 


mals.  A  notable  feature  of  their  nutritional  characteristics  is  the  high 
per  cent  of  nitrogenous  material,  especially  proteins,  present  in  them. 
The  presence  of  these  nitrogenous  substances  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  involved  in  the  relation  of  alfalfa  to  soil  fertility.  In 
respect  to  metals  present,  alfalfa,  like  red  clover,  beans,  peas  and  other 
leguminous  plants,  is  notable  for  the  large  amount  of  calcium  in  its 
tissues.  This  metal  is  that  found  in  limestone  and  lime,  and  in  gypsum 
or  land  plaster.  The  needs  of  alfalfa  for  .calcium  extends  to  the  re- 
quirement that  the  calcium  carbonate  of  limestone  be  present  in  the  soil 
in  such  quantities  as  to  insure  neutralization  of  the  acids  produced  by 
the  decay  of  organic  matter,  as  well  as  to  supply  the  necessary  calcium. 
The  accompanying  table  shows  a  comparison  of  the  percentages  of 
potassium,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  present  in  the  feeds  named. 

TABLE  No.  52.     Fertilizing  constituents  in  certain  feeds.     Pounds  per  hundred-weight  of  the 
x  substances.* 


Potassium. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Nitrogen. 

Alfalfa 

1  48 

0.27 

2.34 

Red  clover 

1.55 

0.24 

1.97 

Timothy 

1  18 

0.14 

0.94 

Corn  silage 

0.31 

0.05 

0.43 

0  90 

0.17 

0.61 

Corn  grain 

0.47 

0.31 

1.65 

Wheat  straw 

0  52 

0.10 

0.50 

Wheat  grain 

0.72 

0.24 

1.90 

Wheat  bran 

1  26 

1.17 

2.46 

Oats  straw 

1.47 

0.13 

0.58 

0  40 

0.34 

1.82 

Linseed  meal 

1.11 

0.78 

6.00 

Tankage 

0  25 

0.61 

8.62 

Potatoes  

0.48 

0.07 

0.34 

*Data  obtained  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 

The  draft  of  any  crop  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  depends  not  only  on 
the  composition  of  the  crop  but  on  the  total  weight  of  the  crop.  Taking 
as  a  basis  the  composition  shown  in  Table  52,  Table  53  shows  the  quan- 
tities of  the  several  constituents  that  would  be  removed  per  acre  with 
the  yields  stated.  The  yields  assumed,  and  the  relation  of  grain  to 
stover  or  straw,  have  been  chosen  largely  on  the  advice  of  Prof.  L.  E. 
Call,  who  has  made  numerous  observations  at  the  Kansas  Experiment 
Station.  The  yields  assumed  are  very  moderate  when  compared  with 
possibilities  and  with  actual  products  often  obtained,  but  are  in  excess  of 
the  average  in  this  state.  It  need  hardly  be  stated  that  with  the  great 
differences  in  the  yields  of  grain,  depending  on  seasonal  characteristics, 
there  are  correspondingly  great  differences  in  the  relation  between  grain 
and  straw. 

Inspection  of  Table  53  shows  that  alfalfa  exceeds  all  of  the  other 
crops  in  the  list  in  total  yield,  and  far  exceeds  them  in  the  weights  of 
potassium,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  contained  in  the  crop.  Attention 
may  be  drawn  to  the  fact  that  such  tables  serve  only  as  general  guides, 
as  the  composition  of  crops  varies  considerably  with  the  differences  in 
composition  of  soils.  The  most  favorable  results  require  at  least  certain 
supplies  of  mineral  substances,  and  probably  definite  quantitative  re- 


464 


Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


lations  among  them,  but,  in  the  presence  of  lavish  or  excessive  supplies, 
plants  will  take  up  unnecessary  quantities  of  one  or  more.  The  kind  and 
amount  of  substances  absorbed  depends  on  a  number  of  conditions  be- 
sides the  actual  needs  of  the  plants.  The  differences  shown  by  alfalfa 
as  set  forth  in  Tables  52  and  53  compared  with  Table  54  bring  out  clearly 
the  variability  of  such  data. 

TABLE  No.  53.    Pounds  of  fertilizing  constituents  per  acre  removed  by  certain  crops  when  pro- 
ducing the  yields  stated;  the  composition  shown  in  Table  No.  52  being  assumed. 


Yield, 
pounds. 

Potassium. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Nitrogen. 

Alfalfa  

5,000 

74  00 

13  50 

117  00 

Red  clover    

2,500 

38  75 

6  00 

49  25 

Timothy 

3  000 

35  40 

4  20 

28  20 

Corn  Stover  

2,450 

22  05 

4   17 

14  95 

Corn  grain 

1  400 

6  58 

4  34 

23   10 

Corn,  entire  crop  

3,850 

28  63 

8  51 

38  05 

Wheat  straw 

1,620 

8  42 

1  62 

8  10 

Wheat  grain  

1,080 

7.78 

2.59 

20.52 

Wheat,  entire  crop  
Oats  straw 

2,700 
1  125 

16.20 
16  54 

4.21 
1  46 

28.62 
6  53 

Oats,  grain  
Oats,  entire  crop 

900 
2,025 

3.60 
20  14 

3.06 
4  52 

16.38 
22  91 

Potatoes  

2,800 

13.44 

1.96 

9.52 

For  more  detailed  exposition  of  the  relation  of  the  alfalfa  crop  to  soil 
fertility  attention  may  be  given  to  Table  54.  This  exhibits  results  ob- 
tained by  the  analysis  of  alfalfa  cut  at  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural 

TABLE  No.  54.    Fertilizing  constituents  in  alfalfa  cut  at  different  stages  of  maturity. 


In  bud. 

One-tenth 
in  bloom. 

Full  bloom. 

In  seed. 

Per  cent. 

Pounds 
per 
acre. 

Per  cent. 

Pounds 
per 
acre. 

Per  cent. 

Pounds 
per 
acre. 

Per  cent. 

Pounds 
per 
acre. 

Total  yield 

6281  .  50 

3.13 

5822.90 

4886.60 

2.52 

3879.40 

Nitrogen  in  crop  .  .  . 

3.40 

2.81 

213.61 

182  .  16 

137.10 

97.98 

Phosphorus  in  crop, 

0.28 

17.77 

0.23 

13.65 

0.18 

8.88 

0.18 

7.11 

Potassium  in  crop  .  . 

3.79 

238.20 

3.25 

189.63 

2.57 

125.68 

2.24 

87.05 

Calcium  in  crop  

1.37 

85.77 

1.45 

84.66 

1.52 

74.53 

1.47 

56.95 

College  during  the  season  of  1914.*  The  total  yield  and  the  composition 
as  to  fertilizing  constituents  is  shown  for  alfalfa  cut  throughout  the 
season  at  the  several  stages  of  development  stated.  Thus  the  yield 
when  each  crop  on  one  plot  was  cut  at  the  bud  stage  of  growth  was 
6281.5  pounds.  This  was  obtained  in  six  cuttings.  At  the  other  stages 
five,  four  and  three  cuttings,  respectively,  were  obtained.  Not  only  are 
great  differences  in  the  totals  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  shown  such 
as  must  be  expected  from  the  difference  in  the  total  yield,  but  the  sev- 
eral products  are  materially  different  in  the  percentages  of  these  ele- 


*  Published  by  permission  of  the  director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  465 

ments.  In  selling  or  buying  alfalfa  hay  these  differences  in  composition 
should  never  be  overlooked. 

The  raw  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  commercial  fertilizers 
could  be  furnished,  just  before  business  was  demoralized  by  the  Great 
War,  at  prices  that  were  the  basis  for  the  following  valuation  of  the  ele- 
ments: Potassium,  6.02  cents  a  pound;  phosphorus,  9.16  cents;  nitrogen, 
16.5  cents.  Leaving  the  calcium  out  of  account,  the  alfalfa  crop  per  acre 
for  the  season,  obtained  by  cutting  the  plant  when  about  one-tenth  in 
bloom,  carried  potassium  that  in  a  commercial  fertilizer  would  have  cost 
$11.42,  phosphorus  worth  $1.25,  and  nitrogen  worth  $30.06,  besides  the 
cost  of  manufacture  of  the  fertilizer,  marketing  it,  and  transporting  it  to 
the  point  of  consumption.  These  figures  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  actual 
fertilizing  value  of  a  crop  of  less  than  three  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  cut  when 
one-tenth  in  bloom,  if  the  elements  could  all  be  returned  to  the  land. 

In  the  preceding  paragraph  data  derived  from  the  alfalfa  crop  cut 
when  one-tenth  in  bloom  have  been  used,  as  that  stage  is  one  frequently 
taken  for  cutting  the  crop.  Comparison  of  these  data  with  those  for 
alfalfa  cut  at  other  stages  shows  that  in  respect  to  percentage  com- 
position the  calcium  varies  least,  indicating  that,  on  the  College  soil,  as 
the  plant  matures  the  calcium,  or  lime,  compounds  continue  to  be  absorbed 
at  about  the  same  rate.  With  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  there 
is  a  steady  diminution  in  the  percentages  present  as  the  crop  advances  in 
maturity.  As  the  total  yield  for  the  season  is  less  the  more  mature 
each  cutting  is  permitted  to  become,  the  conjunction  of  lower  yield  and 
lower  percentage  of  the  several  elements  causes  very  great  differences 
in  the  total  quantities  removed.  Thus  the  six  cuttings  of  alfalfa  in  the 
bud  removed  more  than  twice  as  much  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  po- 
tassium as  did  the  three  cuttings  made  when  the  plant  was  in  seed.  At 
the  same  time  the  calcium  removed  was  over  50  per  cent  greater. 

It  is  seen,  thus,  that  the  actual  quantity  of  the  elements  of  fertility 
removed  in  the  alfalfa  crop  will  vary  with  yield  and  time  of  cutting,  and 
it  also  varies  with  the  soil.  Since  all  agriculture  works  toward  the  re- 
moval of  as  large  crops  as  can  be  obtained,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ten- 
dency is  toward  a  system  that  removes  much  fertility  from  the  land,  and 
that  the  actual  money  value  of  the  fertility  in  an  alfalfa  crop  is  very 
large. 

The  element  in  the  alfalfa  that  contributes  most  to  its  fertilizing  value 
is  the  nitrogen,  and  we  should  be  making  a  grave  mistake  if  we  con- 
sidered that  this  element  is  all  drawn  from  the  soil.  As  is  now 
well  known,  leguminous  plants  harbor  bacteria  on  their  roots  which  have 
the  power  to  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the  soil  and  to  build  it 
into  their  organic  tissues,  and  later  these  tissues  undergo  changes  and 
their  nitrogen  becomes  available  to  the  host  plant.  Alfalfa  possesses 
this  power  to  a  high  degree,  and  by  means  of  it  a  large  part  of  the 
nitrogen  of  the  crop  is  obtained  indirectly,  but  with  little  delay,  from  the 
limitless  store  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  extent  to  which  the  nitrogen  of  the  alfalfa  crop  is  supplied  by 
the  air  can  not  be  stated  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Observations 
and  analyses  directed  towards  the  solution  of  this  problem  are  very 
—16 


466  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

complicated  and  difficult.  Alfalfa  roots  penetrate  to  such  depths  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  know  how  great  a  mass  of  soil  is  subject  to  draft. 
Accurate  sampling  of  soils,  and  especially  taking  account  of  the  alfalfa 
roots,  etc.,  in  the  soil,  is  very  difficult.  The  relation  of  the  weight  of  the 
roots  left  in  the  soil  to  that  of  the  crops  removed  is  a  vital  part  of  the 
problem,  but  it  is  practically  impossible  to  handle  this  satisfactorily  for 
field  conditions.  One  thing  well  established  is  that  on  soils  rich  in 
nitrogen  alfalfa  will  get  much  of  its  supply  of  that  element  from  the 
soil,  but  on  soils  poor  in  nitrogen  it  depends  more  upon  the  help  of  the 
bacteria.  We  may  say  with  comparative  safety  that  alfalfa  grown  on 
soils  poor  in  nitrogen  will,  by  means  of  the  robots,  and  stubble  and  dropped 
leaves,  add  to  the  soil  more  nitrogen  than  it  removes,  and  that,  therefore, 
although  much  nitrogen  may  be  removed  in  the  crops,  the  soil  will  be 
enriched  in  that  element.  On  the  other  hand,  soils  rich  in  nitrogen  will 
lose  some  of  their  store  even  when  planted  to  alfalfa  or  other  legumes. 
With  a  certain  intermediate  composition  there  would  be  equilibrium,  and 
on  the  whole  neither  gain  nor  loss  of  nitrogen. 

This  capacity  of  alfalfa  to  add  nitrogen  to  soils  that  are  deficient  in 
that  element  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  that 
the  plant  possesses  in  relation  to  fertility.  Nitrogen  is  likely  to  be  the 
element  that  is  first  to  become  deficient  in  Kansas  soils,  and  alfalfa  cul- 
ture is  in  many  parts  of  the  state  the  most  readily  available  means  of  re- 
storing it.  To  do  this  most  effectively,  however,  one  should  not  depend 
merely  upon  the  residues  of  roots,  stubble,  etc.,  left  in  the  ground,  but 
should  feed  the  alfalfa  crop  on  the  place  as  much  as  possible,  and  apply 
the  manure  produced  to  the  farm.  This  procedure  has  the  additional 
merit  that  the  potassium,  phosphorus  and  other  elements  will  also  be 
largely  returned  at  the  same  time. 

Another  important  benefit  to  the  soil  accompanying  alfalfa  produc- 
tion is  due  to  the  addition  of  organic  matter  or  humus  that  takes  place. 
Organic  matter  is  the  storehouse  of  nitrogen,  and  to  an  extent  of  mineral 
substances,  and  it  confers  highly  important  physical  and  chemical  prop- 
erties. Soil  well  supplied  with  humus  deports  itself  more  favorably 
toward  drouth,  flood,  heat  and  cold.  By  its  decay  it  yields  acids  that 
attack  the  silicates,  phosphates  and  other  difficult  soluble  mineral  con- 
stituents of  the  soil,  and  brings  them  into  a  condition  to  be  used  by 
plants.  A  complete  discussion  of  the  relations  of  humus  to  soil  value 
would  require  many  pages,  but  here  it  must  suffice  to  have  pointed  out 
the  important  function  that  alfalfa  serves  in  adding  this  substance  to 
fields  on  which  it  grows. 

In  respect  to  potassium  and  phosphorus,  which  are  taken  wholly 
from  the  land  on  which  the  crops  grow,  inspection  of  Table  53  shows 
that  alfalfa  removes  two,  three,  four,  or  even  more,  times  as  much  as 
do  most  other  crops.  Hence,  whatever  may  be  the  capacity  of  a  soil  to 
supply  these  elements,  it  is  taxed  much  more  by  alfalfa  than  by  ordinary 
crops.  This  is  a  fact  very  frequently  unrecognized  by  farmers.  Their 
attention  is  so  closely  fixed  upon  the  beneficial  results  accruing  to  a  soil 
by  the  addition  of  humus  and  nitrogen  that  they  fail  to  attend  to  the 
equally  important  fact  that  calcium,  potassium  and  phosphorus  are 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


467 


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468  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

diminishing  rapidly.  On  ordinary  soils  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
when  alfalfa  is  grown  for  a  long  series  of  years  the  productivity  can 
be  maintained  only  by  surface  application  of  manures  that  will  restore 
these  elements,  though  the  humus  that  the  alfalfa  provides  will  assist 
in  unlocking  the  soil  stores  of  these  elements  contained  in  difficultly  soluble 
minerals.  So,  too,  when  alfalfa  fields  are  broken  up  and  put  into  other 
crops,  while  the  nitrogen  may  be  more  than  adequate,  the  other  critically 
essential  elements  may  have  been  reduced  to  insufficiency. 

Study  of  Table  55  will  be  profitable  from  several  points  of  view.  It 
gives  results  of  the  analysis  of  two  soils,  three  samples  from  one  and 
two  from  the  other.  The  first  is  located  in  the  west  central  part  of 
Montgomery  county.  The  samples  a,  b  and  c  are  from  points  in  close 
proximity,  which  have  been  very  differently  treated ;  a  has  been  in  alfalfa 
for  thirteen  years,  b  in  corn,  kafir  corn  and  small  grains,  and  c  was 
unbroken  native  grass  meadow.  The  second  soil  is  located  in  the  south- 
east part  of  Montgomery  county.  The  part  from  which  a  was  taken 
had  been  in  alfalfa  for  ten  years,  while  b  was  from  a  field  that  had  been 
used  for  general  grain  farming.  With  both  of  these  soils  the  fields  to 
be  compared  lay  in  such  a  way  that  it  seems  that  they  were  very  similar 
in  composition  originally.  The  results  of  the  analyses  are  not  consistent 
in  all  cases  with  what  might  be  expected,  and  possibly  this  is  due  to 
original  soil  differences.  The  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  upper 
seven  inches,  the  next  thirteen  inches,  the  next  twenty  inches,  and  all 
of  these  together,  or  the  surface  forty  inches.  Doubtless  alfalfa  roots 
penetrated  to  a  greater  depth,  but  those  of  other  crops  would  do  so  to 
but  a  very  limited  extent. 

The  figures  show  that  in  almost  every  case  the  native  meadow  was 
richer  in  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium  and  organic  carbon, 
the  last  of  which  represents  the  humus,  than  the  field  in  alfalfa,  or  that 
which  had  been  cropped  to  grains.  When  the  fields  in  alfalfa  are  com- 
pared with  those  used  for  grain  farming  it  is  seen  that  the  figures  for 
nitrogen  are  slightly  higher  for  the  alfalfa  fields;  those  for  phosphorus 
and  potassium  are  almost  identical;  those  for  calcium  lower  for  the  al- 
falfa fields;  those  for  the  organic  carbon  notably  higher  in  one  case  and 
slightly  higher  in  the  other  case  for  the  alfalfa  field.  Considering  the 
difficulties  of  such  investigation,  the  analyses  are,  on  the  whole,  a  re- 
markable confirmation  of  what  should  be  expected,  viz.,  that  all  crops 
exceed  native  meadow  in  their  draft  upon  the  minerals  of  the  soil;  that 
grain  crops  reduce  the  nitrogen  and  the  organic  matter  greatly;  that 
alfalfa,  while  removing  metals  as  rapidly  as  do  grain  crops,  tends  to 
maintain  the  nitrogen  and  the  organic  matter.  (See  "Soil,"  in  index.) 


The  secretary  of  the  Kansas  City  Hay  Dealers'  Association  says: 
"Ninety  per  cent  of  our  inquiries  are  for  pea-green  hay,  and  of  these  in- 
quiries only  about  5  per  cent  can  be  satisfied.  This  causes  buyers  to  pay 
$3  to  $4  a  ton  premium  for  color,  and  until  such  time  as  the  inquirers 
learn  that  color  is  not  the  most  important  element  it  is  to  the  producer's 
interest  to  preserve  the  color,  if  possible." — Farmers  Mail  and  Breeze. 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  469 


ALFALFA'S  PLACE  IN  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

By  P.  E.  CRABTREE,  Specialist  in  Farm  Management,  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College. 

The  growth  of  the  alfalfa  industry  in  the  state  of  Kansas  indirectly 
suggests  the  adaptability  of  this  crop  to  our  soils  and  our  climates. 
Very  few  states  in  the  Union  have  the  variation  in  altitude,  rainfall, 
wind  velocity  and  nightly  temperature  that  Kansas  has.  Geologically, 
the  variation  in  our  soil  and  subsoil  is  equally  as  great.  We  have  rea- 
son to  be  thankful  that  a  very  large  area  of  it  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  heavy  production  of  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  is  well  suited  to  farm  use.  It  is  always  well  for  the  producer 
of  a  product  to  be  also  the  consumer,  as  largely  as  he  can  profitably 
utilize  the  product,  for  in  so  doing  he  eliminates  all  middlemen's  profits 
and  usually  two  or  more  items  of  transportation.  Definite  application 
of  thought  along  this  line  will  usually  disclose  that  a  general  plan  of 
producing  the  commodities  required  on  the  farm  is  associated  with 
highly  satisfactory  returns  for  any  effort  thus  put  forth. 

In  the  use  of  alfalfa  on  the  farm  where  it  is  grown,  the  general  prac- 
tice of  animal  husbandry,  without  which  a  really  permanent  system  of 
agricultural  pursuit  has  never  yet  been  found  possible,  is  encouraged. 
Probably  the  fundamental  consideration  in  the  encouragement  of  animal 
husbandry  is  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
farm  product  is  manufactured  into  a  more  condensed  form,  in  which 
there  is  often  distinct  advantage.  A  farm  may  be  located  a  considerable 
distance  from  transportation  lines  and  in  the  condensed  form  of  animals 
or  their  products  the  crops  may  be  more  cheaply  and  conveniently  trans- 
ported to  market. 

Alfalfa  scores  another  point  for  farm  use  in  that  it  is  a  ration  balancer. 
In  this  capacity  it  combines  properly  with  many  home-grown  products, 
enabling  them  in  turn  to  be  utilized  on  the  farm,  for  in  its  protein  content 
it  is  by  far  the  cheapest  source  available  for  general  farm  use.  Indeed, 
where  alfalfa  is  lacking  on  the  farm,  I  am  sorry  to  admit,  too  often  no 
definite  attempt  is  made  properly  to  balance  the  live-stock  rations,  greatly 
at  the  expense  of  health  of  the  animals  and  at  the  restriction  of  the 
profits  obtainable. 

With  any  living  animal  one  of  the  important  considerations  with 
proper  digestion  is  palatability.  Without  palatability  the  necessary 
digestive  secretions  are  not  called  into  action,  and  consequently  the 
eaten  food  does  not  receive  proper  chemical  treatment.  On  account  of 
its  palatability,  no  better  relish  has  ever  been  found  for  live  stock  and 
poultry  than  alfalfa. 

As  a  farm  pasture,  on  the  whole,  nothing  else  compares  favorably 
with  alfalfa.  It  is  early,  it  is  late,  it  is  constant,  it  is  almost  continuous. 
As  to  its  palatability,  ask  the  hog,  ask  the  hen,  ask  the  horse.  True,  it  is, 
on  the  average,  a  dangerous  plant  on  which  to  pasture  "ruminating" 
animals;  so  please  otherwise  provide  for  the  pasture  of  the  cow,  the 
sheep,  and  the  goat. 


470  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

We  can  well  afford  to  consider  the  "mammal"  value  of  any  foodstuff. 
On  reference  to  circular  No.  25,  Michigan  Experiment  Station,  we  are 
told  "a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  contains  46.5  pounds  of  nitrogen,  12.2  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  35.8  pounds  of  potash,  and  that  its  total  present 
value,  if  purchased  as  commercial  fertilizer,  would  be  $10.82."  Think  of 
the  opportunity  thus  offered  to  a  person  wishing  to  build  up  a  depleted 
farm  in  cheerfully  becoming  a  large  buyer  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  by  feeding 
it  to  animals  worth  their  feed,  thus  practically  secure  its  full  feeding 
value  free  of  cost;  for  the  hay  can  often  be  procured  at  the  said  $10.82 
per  ton — in  other  words,  its  fertilizer  value. 

When  we  come  to  realize  that  77  per  cent  of  the  air  is  "free  nitrogen," 
in  connection  with  the  ability  of  alfalfa  to  capture  this  nitrogen,  we  must 
conclude  that  no  thoughtful  farmer  can  neglect  to  "cash  his  opportunity" 
by  a  somewhat  liberal  use  of  the  plant,  Kansas  air  being  plentiful  and 
nitrogen  now  selling  at  eighteen  cents  per  pound.  Our  humble  servant, 
alfalfa,  is  easily  queen  of  all  the  legume  family  of  plants  for  this  purpose. 

In  utilizing  man  labor  and  horsepower  alfalfa  easily  heads  the  list. 
In  most  instances  only  one  cultivation  is  required,  and  it  may  be  per- 
formed at  almost  any  season  of  the  year  when  the  field  is  unoccupied  by 
growth  and  the  soil  found  in  workable  condition. 

The  harvesting  date  is  not  condensed  and  exacting,  as  is  the  case  with 
wheat  and  many  other  crops,  but  instead  is  distributed  over  a  few 
months  of  the  year,  which  besides  being  a  relief  to  both  man  and  beast, 
also  greatly  assists  in  storage  space  required,  wherever  the  crop  is  to 
be  placed  under  roof,  for  the  lapse  of  time  permits  the  mass  to  settle 
very  materially  and  thus  occupy  so  much  less  space. 

Again,  if  a  definite  limited  space  under  roof  or  stack  cover  is  to  be 
utilized  for  the  care  of  the  season's  crops,  this  separation  of  harvest 
dates  enables  one  in  the  meantime  nicely  to  dispose  of  the  previous  cut- 
ting by  sale  or  use,  or  at  least  greatly  to  condense  it  by  baling  at  his 
leisure  between  successive  cuttings. 

Few  crops  enjoy  the  popularity  as  a  "selling  crop"  that  alfalfa  en- 
joys. It  is  considered  an  "article  of  commerce"  in  one  or  more  of  its 
various  forms  throughout  almost  the  entire  civilized  world.  From  the 
farmer's  point  of  view,  selling  the  crop  is  excusable  only  when  he  is  sure 
that  he  can  spa,re  the  soil  fertility  which  it  contains,  which  in  some 
special  instances  is  even  true. 

Next,  selling  from  the  farm  might  be  indulged  in  where  the  farmer 
finds  he  can  purchase  soil  fertility  in  other  form  that  will  repace  that 
contained  in  the  crop,  and  at  such  price  as  to  leave  him  a  margin  of 
profit  on  the  double  transaction  (which  is  almost  never  possible). 

We  have  a  few  isolated  instances  wherein  selling  outright  can  be  in- 
dulged in  rather  freely.  There  are  places  in  Colorado  where  the  irri- 
gating water  fully  supplies  the  drain  on  potash,  and  largely  also  that  on 
phosphoric  acid,  while  the  alfalfa  plant  utilizes  the  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere,  thus  reducing  soil-exhaustion  to  a  minimum.  In  our  own 
state  what  is  called  the  "Garden  City  district,"  in  Finney  county,  is 
most  favorably  located  for  the  production  of  alfalfa  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. There  the  soil  is  specially  adapted  to  its  most  perfect  develop- 


Alfalfa  in  Kansas. 


471 


472  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

ment.  Besides  vast  areas  of  "underflow"  land,  where  irrigation  is  seldom 
or  never  needed,  there  are  some  hundreds  of  irrigating  plants.  Under 
these  unusually  favorable  conditions  it  is  not  strange  that  the  farmers 
are  often  willing  to  sell  the  crop  entire. 

In  this  connection  there  are  other  points  to  consider,  one  of  which  is 
the  selling  value.  Corn  has  a  great  range  in  selling  value,  and  last  year 
reached  the  handsome  figure  of  $28.57  per  ton.  Alfalfa,  likewise,  has 
had  selling  values  varying  all  the  way  from  $6.50  to  $17  per  ton.  Be 
that  as  it  may,  we  are  told  that  when  alfalfa  hay  is  intelligently  fed  to 
a  good  class  of  market  animals  it  has  an  average  feed  value  of  not  less 
than  $21  per  ton.  This  conclusion  is  not  hazarded  on  the  cost  price  of  the 
feeds,  but  instead  is  based  on  the  selling  prices  of  the  animals  produced 
by  correct  feeding,  the  same  disposed  of  on  the  general  market.  Before 
selling  alfalfa  hay  from  the  farm  the  farmer  should  reckon  the  profits 
to  be  made  from  feeding  it. 

No  one  for  a  moment  questions  the  permanency  of  the  growing  de- 
mand for  alfalfa  in  its  various  forms.  On  the  farm  it  is  in  increasing 
demand  as  a  pasture,  most  especially  for  hogs  and  for  poultry,  and 
regularly  supplies  a  fair  amount  of  winter  pasture  for  horses  as  we 
more  nearly  approach  the  western  border  of  our  state. 

As  a  roughage  it  is  preeminently  the  best,  outranking  by  far  any 
other  roughage  that  is  to  be  used  alone,  and  in  addition  combines  best  of 
all  with  the  various  available  grains  and  chopped  feeds  for  the  finishing 
or  heavy  feeding  of  grain-fed  animals. 

As  a  base  for  condimental  stock  foods  it  is  practically  never  over- 
looked. Its  absorbent  powers  commend  it  highly  as  a  base  for  molasses 
and  other  liquid  or  semiliquid  substances,  and  its  chemical  content  is  in 
pleasing  contrast  to  the  great  majority  of  materials  available  for  such 
manufacture,  which  explains  the  tremendous  demand  for  first-class  al- 
falfa to  be  sent  to  the  manufactories. 

With  the  above  advantages,  alfalfa  stands  very  high  in  its  encourage- 
ment of  a  desirable  husbandry.  It  also  is  a  great  help  in  supplying  con- 
stancy of  labor  at  home,  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  keep  competent  help 
regularly  occupied.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  but  particularly  be- 
cause of  the  encouragement  of  animal  husbandry,  alfalfa  as  a  farm 
crop  ranks  at  the  top,  from  a  farm  management  point  of  view.  (See 
"Profits,"  in  index.) 


I  had  one  bottom  field  that  made  me  over  $30  profit  per  acre  last  year, 
and  some  have  done  even  better.  I  think  much  of  alfalfa. — A  Bourbon 
county  correspondent. 

From  a  recent  farm-management  survey,  the  Wisconsin  College  of 
Agriculture  concludes :  "That  alfalfa  is  a  profitable  crop  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  farms  that  grow  it  are  making  large  profits.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  figures  taken  in  connection  with  our  farm-man- 
agement work: 

377  farms  growing  alfalfa  made  a  profit  of  $1200  per  farm. 

511  farms  with  no  alfalfa  made  a  profit  of  $728  per  farm." 

— Hoard's  Dairyman. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Acid  soils  (see  "Soils,  acid") 
Acreage,  in  Kansas,  by  counties,   1891  and 
1915,   5 

by  thirds,  16 

distribution   (Fig.  4),  18 

irrigated,   165 

seed,  annually,   117,  124 

total,  1891  to  1915,  inclusive,  4 

—  in  other  states,  6 
Acres  per  grower,  11 
Adaptability,   182,  469 
Africa,  history  in,  173,  175 
Age,  fields,  13 

—  seed,  will  keep,  47,  208 

Air,  forcing  through  hay  in  mow  (Fig. 
210),  261 

Albrecht,  H.  W.,  article,  216 

Altitude  of  Kansas  (Fig.  7),  23 

Analysis,  chemical,  of  alfalfa  (see  "Com- 
position") 

—  seed,   by   Agricultural   College,    210,    214 

—  soil,  by  Agricultural  College,  237 
Anderson,  Gust.,  early  seeding  in  Kansas,  12 
Ant,  mound-building  prairie  (Fig.  342),  393 
Arabian  alfalfa.   184 

Arabs,  history  with,  175 

Army  worm   (Figs.  326  to  330),   156,   160, 

379,    383 

Aroma,  in  hay,    73,   243 
Asia,  history  in,  171,   173 
Bacteria,  acid  soils  kill,   225,   237 

—  inoculation   with    (Figs.    36   to   40),    43, 

44,   215,   236 

—  on   roots    (Figs.   37   and   38),   215,    236, 

465 

Bacterial  stem  blight,  348 
Bags,  seed,   126 

Balers  (see  "Machinery,  baler") 
Bales,  covering   (Figs.  110,  370),   111,  458 

—  how  to  make  (Fig.  107),  111,  246 

—  loading  on  cars  and  wagons   (Figs.   Ill, 

372),   114,  455,  459 

—  piling  (Figs.  109,  110,  370),  111,  458 

—  size    and   weight    (Fig.    107),    111,    246, 

455 

—  storing   (Figs.  109,   110,  370),   111,  246 

258,    458 
— •  sweating,  246 

—  ventilation,   111,   246,   458 

Baling  hay  (Figs.  104,  105,  106,  371,  372), 
107,  246,  250,  458 

—  cost,  169 

—  practice  of  Miami  county  reporter,    113 

—  reduction  of  bulk,   113 
Baltic  alfalfa,   187,   189 
Bare  spots,  reseeding,  53 
Barley,    composition,    429 

—  nurse  crop,  236 
Barn,  hay    (see  "Sheds") 

— •  curing   in,    102,   258,   260,   261 
Barteldes    Seed    Company's    early    importa- 
tions,   13 

Beef  cattle    (see   "Cattle,   beef") 
Bees  in  relation  to  alfalfa   (Fig.  350),  150, 

195,  268,  401 

Beetle,  blister   (Figs.  343,  344),  395 
Berry,  J.  W.,  curing  hay  in  shed,  258 
Binder,     grain     (see     "Machinery,     binder, 
grain") 


Bins,   seed,    126 

Biscuits,   alfalfa,  438 

Bisulphide  of  carbon,  161,  162,  364,  395 

Blackshere,  J.  R.,  early  seeding,  12,  13 

Blanks  mailed  out,  11 

Bleaching  hay,  243,  457 

Blinn,   P.   K.,   tests  of  varieties    (Figs.   158 

to  161),   187 

Blister  beetles  (Figs.  343,  344),  395 
"Bloat"  of  cattle  and  sheep,   132,   135,  419 

—  prevention,   135,   136,  421 

—  remedies    (Fig.   129),   136,  421 

—  sticking  for   (Fig.  356),  421 

Bloom,  indication  of  time  to  cut   (Fig.  54), 

63,    242 
Blossom,  parts  of   (Figs.  168  to  182),   193, 

199 

—  pollinating  (Figs.  167  to  183,  350),  150, 

193,    195,   203,   204,   268,   401 
Blower,  curing  hay  in  mow  (Fig.  210),  261 
Blue  grass  in  alfalfa,  55,   56 
— •  English,  in  mixture  with  alfalfa,  50 
Borders,  Joe,  old  field,  13 
Borer,   clover-root    (Figs.   310  to   312),   367 
Botany  of  alfalfa,  171,  180 
Bottom  land  versus  upland,  13,  16,  38,  234 
Bottoms,  stack,  89,   105,  245 
Boys,  W.  A.,   article,   271 
Bran,  poisoned  mash  for  insects,   157,   160, 

161,   377,   382,   385 

—  mash  formula,    377 

Bran,  wheat,  composition,  408,  415 
Breaking  alfalfa  sod  (Fig.  140),  155 
Breaking  sod  land  for  seedbed,  43 
Breeding  for   disease   resistance,    198 

—  drouth  resistance,  189 

—  forage  yield,   193 
— •  seed  yield,   197 

— -  winter  hardiness,  185 

Broadcasting  versus  drilling  seed,   50 

Brown  hay,  feeding  value  of,  149,  246,  412 

— -root  rot,  352 

Brubaker,  J.  A.,   article,  454 

Brush  drag   (Fig.  338),  391 

Buckhorn  (Figs.  193,  281),  337 

Buck  rake,   80 

Buds,  indication  of  time  to  cut,  63,  242 

Building-up  soils  with  alfalfa,  150,  275,  466 

Bulge  in  stacks   (Fig.  78),   89 

Bull  rake,   80 

Bur  clover  as  adulterant  (Fig.  186),  212 

"Burning"   crops,   on  alfalfa  sod  land,    151 

to   155 
Burning,  hay,  spontaneous  combustion,  105, 

246 
Burning  over  alfalfa  field  to  destroy  pests, 

57,  370 

Burton,  E.  I.,  article,  258 
Buyers',  hay-marketing  from  standpoint  of, 

454 

Cakes,  alfalfa,  438 
California's  acreage,  6 

California,  history  in    (Fig.   155),   178,   179 
Call,   L.   E.,   article,   230 
Campaign  for  alfalfa  in  Kansas,  4 
Candy,  alfalfa,   438 
"Cane"  preceding  alfalfa,   236 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,    151  to   155 

—  stubble,  sowing  in  on  sandy  soils,  236 


(473) 


474 


General  Index. 


Canula  and  trocar  for   "bloat"    (Fig.    129) 

136,  421 

—  how  to  use   (Fig.  356),  421 
Cape  Horn,  history  about,   179    • 
Caps,  hay   (Fig.  63),  75,  260 
Carbon  bisulphide,  161,   162,  364,  395 
Cars,  capacity,  minimum,  for  hay,  459 
— 'loading  with  baled  hay   (Fig.  Ill),   114, 

455,  456,   459 
Carriers  and  tracks    (Figs.   88,   93,   94,   95, 

267,  268,  269,  270),  98,  321 
Carts,  harrow  (Figs.  35,  258),  294 
Caterpillar,  alfalfa   (Figs.  333  to  335),  387 
Cattle,   "bloat"    (see   "Bloat") 
Cattle,  beef,  feeding,  hay,   140,   149,  410 

cutting  preferred,  412 

gains  on  alfalfa,  411 

maintenance  on  alfalfa  alone,  139,  412 

pasturing  (Fig.  125),  132 

rations  for,  including  alfalfa,  140,  414 

— •  —  sheds    for,     and    for    hay,     combined 

(Figs.  101,  208,  209),  105,  251,  256 

silage  for,  made  in  stack,  265 

soilage  for,   137 

'Straw,  alfalfa,  for,   126 

—  dairy,  feeding,  hay   (Fig.  131),  143,415 
cuttings  preferred,   416 

maintenance  on  alfalfa  alone,  139,  415 

pasturing   (Fig.  126),   132,  417 

rations   for,  including  alfalfa,  143,  416 

silage  for,  262,  266 

soilage  for,   137,  415,  417 

Chalcis-fly,  alfalfa-seed  or  clover-seed   (Figs. 

347,  348),  398 
Charred  hay,  246 
Chickens  (see  "Poultry") 
Chicory,    210,    338 

Chile,  history  in    (Fig.   154),   177,   179 
Chilean  alfalfa    (Fig.   158),   185,    191 
Cleaning  and  grading  machines   (Figs.  274, 

275),   327 

Cleaning  seed,  47,  271 
Climate,  altitude's  effect  on   (Fig.  7),  23 

—  clear  days,  number  in  year  (Fig.  9),  23, 

25 

—  effect  on  yields  and  cuttings,  22  to  28 

—  frost,  killing,  last  in  spring  and  first  in 

fall,  dates  (Fig.  8),  24 

—  growing  season,  length  of  (Fig.  6),  23 

—  precipitation,   variation  in    (Fig.  5),   21, 

22 

—  winterkilling,   162,   186 
Clipping    (see   "Cutting") 
Clover,  red,  composition,  409 
Clover-hay  worm    (Fig.  349),   399 
Clover  huller  for  threshing  seed,  123 
Clover  leaf-weevil    (Figs.   339  to  341),   392 
Clover-root  borer    (Figs.   310   to   312),    367 
Clover-root  curculio  (Figs.  313  to  315),  368 
Clover  sitones   (Figs.  316  to  317),  371 
Cochel,  W.  A.,  article,  410 

Cocking,   hay    (Figs.   62,   63),    73,    76,   248, 
249 

—  seed,  120,  270 

Cocks,  caps  for   (Fig.  63),   75,  260 
Coffee,  alfalfa,  438 
Cold,  resistance  to,   185 

—  winterkilling  caused  by,  162,  187 
Color  in  hay,  73,  243,  468 
Colorado's  acreage,  6 

Columella,  estimate  of  alfalfa,   174 
Combination,  grasses  with  alfalfa,   50 
Combustion,  spontaneous,  of  hay,   105,   246 
Composition  of  alfalfa,  403,  415,  429 

—  feeding-stuffs,  various,  408,  429 

—  leaves  and  stems  at  different  stages,  242, 

403,   415,  429 

—  soils,  alfalfa  compared  with  other  crops, 

467 


Constituents,   feeding,   of  alfalfa,   403,   415, 
429 

—  fertilizing,    of    alfalfa    and    other    feeds, 

463 

Cookies,    alfalfa,    438 
Corn,  composition,  408,  429 

—  preceding  alfalfa,  34,  35,  235 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 

Cost    and   profit,    producing    hay    and   seed, 
detailed   (Figs.  145,   147),   168 

—  drainage,  221,  224 

—  storage   in   sheds  or  mow   vs.    in  stacks, 

77,    245,    251 

Cottonseed  meal,  composition,  408 
Covering  hay,  bales   (Figs.  109,   110,  370), 

111,   458 
cocks    (Fig.   63),   75,   260 

—  —  stacks  (Figs.  79  to  83),  90,  246,  400 

—  seed,  depth,  53 
Cowpeas,  composition,  409 

—  fertilizer,  36 

—  preceding  alfalfa,    235 

Crabgrass  in  alfalfa,  55,  56,  156,  211,  243, 

333 

Crabtree,  P.  E.,  article,  469 
Crackers,   alfalfa,   438 
Crew,   haying,   size,    247 
Crops,   alfalfa,   dates  of  cutting,   25,   26,  27 

left  for  seed,  which  ones,  118,  268 

number   cut    in    a    season    (Fig.    10), 

15,    19,   20 

—  —  yields  per   acre  of   different   ones,    16 

—  preceding  alfalfa,  34,  213,  234 

—  rotation  with  alfalfa,  155 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,   151  to  155 

effect  of  alfalfa  on,  150 

Crossing  alfalfa    (Fig.    183),    199,   204 
Crowder,   ditch    (Fig.    217),   279 
'Crown  wart   (Fig.  299),   350 

Crown,   splitting  by   disking-  (Fig.    49),   57 

to  62 
Crushers,  limestone  (Figs.  18,  19,  200)    34, 

229 

Cubic  feet  in  a  ton  of  hay,  461 
Cultivating,  age  at  which  permissible,  61 

—  Cost,   168,   169 

—  diseases  controlled  by,  339 

—  insects  controlled  by,   158,   367 

—  loosens  ground,   57  to   62 

—  machinery  to  use,  57  to  62 

—  splits  crowns  (Fig.  49),  57  to  62 

—  time  to  do  it,   61 

—  weeds  destroyed  by,   55,  56,  57,   332 

—  yields  effected  by,    57  to   62 
Cultivator,  alfalfa  (Figs.  50,  52,  238,  239), 

57  to  62,   303 
Cultures,  pure,  method  of  inoculation,  216, 

237 

Cunningham,   C.   C.,   article,   267 
Curculio,    clover-root    (Figs.    313    to    315) 

368 

Cured,  hay  is,  when,   76,  244 
Curing  hay,   71,  243,  457 

baled,   246 

cocks  vs.  windrow,  day's  work,  249 

cost,  and  storing,  168,  169 

losses  from  rain  during,  68,  71,  244, 

259,   459 

mow-,  with  blower,  261 

process   of  moisture   elimination,    243 

shed-    or    mow-,    put    in    green     (Fig. 

210),  102,  258,  260 
—  slow  versus  fast,  73,  243 
— •  —  time  required  for,  76,  244 
—  seed,  120,  270 

time  required  for,    122,   270 

utter,  alfalfa    (Figs.    136,  271),  324 
Cutting  hay,   63,   67,   241,   366 
closeness  of,  55.   56,   67,   241,  242 


General  Index. 


475 


Cutting  hay,  cost,  168,  169 

day's   work   in,    248 

diseases    controlled  by,    339 

height  to   set   sickle  bar,    55,    56,    67, 

241,    242 

insects  controlled  by,  159,  367 

killing  alfalfa  by  wrong  methods,   55, 

56,    67,    241,    242,    366 

late,  effect  of  (Fig.  58),  67,  366 

—pastures,  to  refreshen  stand,  130 

rain  at  time  of,  68 

stage  of  growth  to  do  it,  63,  242 

time  to   do  it    (Figs.   54,   55),   25,   63, 

242 

time  of  day  to  do  it,   70 

young   alfalfa,   especial   care,   55,   56, 

67,    241,    332 

—  seed    (Figs.    114,    115,    116),    120,    269, 

270 

—  weeds  in  alfalfa,  55,  56,  67,  241,  332 
Cuttings,  dates  of  (Figs.  11  to  15),  25,  26, 

—  left  for  seed,  which  ones,  118,  268 

—  number  in  year  (Fig.  10),  15,  19,  20,  26 

—  yield  of  each,  16,  19,  20 
Cutworms   (Fig.  331),   161,  384 
Dairy  cattle  (see  "Cattle,  dairy") 
Day's  work  in  haying,  247 
Dean,  Geo.  A.,  article,  367 

Decay    of    crown    caused    by    disking    (Fig. 

49),  57  to  62 
Demand  for  hay,  6,  447,  454,  457,  470 

—  —  seed,  267 

Depreciation  on  equipment,   168,   169 
Depth,    covering  seed,    53 
Dew,  bloat  in  relation  to,   135 

—  effect  of  cutting  hay  with  it  on,  70,  244 
Discolored  hay   (see  "Brown  hay") 

—  seed.    270 

Diseases,  bacterial  stem  blight,  348 

—  brown  root  rot,  352 

—  crown  wart  (Fig.  299),  350 

—  disking  as  cause  of   (Fig.  49),  57  to  62 

—  downy  mildew    (Figs.   290  to  292),   344 

—  eelworm  or  root  knot   (Fig.  300),  352 

—  leaf-spot  (Figs.  284  to  289),  341,  343 

—  red  or  violet  root  rot   (Figs  293  to  297), 

344 

—  resistance,  breeding  for,   198 

—  root  knot  or  eelworm   (Fig.  300),  352 

—  root  rot,  brown,  352 

—  root  rot,  red  or  violet  (Figs.  293  to  297), 

344 

—  rust    (Figs.  282,  283),   339 

—  stem  cracking  (Fig.  298),  349 
— -yellow  top,  349 

Disk    (Figs.  32,  33,  49,  227,  228),  40,  57, 

235,  293,  300 
Disking,   cost,    168 

—  cultivation   by,   splits  crowns    (Fig.   49), 

57  to  62 

—  seed-bed  preparation    (Figs.  32,  33),  40, 

235 

—  weeds  in  alfalfa,  55,  56,  57 
Distribution,   acreage,    in  Kansas    (Fig.   4), 

18 
Distribution,    production,    in    United    States 

(Fig.  3),   17 
Ditches,  drainage,  29,  223 

—  irrigation  (Figs.  143,  220,  222),  165 
Dock,  curled  (Fig.  278),  333 

—  sour,  or  sheep  sorrel,  334 

Dodder   (Figs.   192,  280),   161,  210,  336 

Doughnuts,    alfalfa,   438 

Downy  mildew  (Figs.  290  to  292),  344 

Doyle,  H.  W.,  7,  11 

Dozer,  hopper   (Fig.  325),   158,  378 

Drag,  brush   (Fig.  338),  391 


Dragging,   and  drags    (Fig.   230),   40,    168, 

235  . 
Drainage,  soil -(Figs.   17,   194  to   198),   29, 

216 

Drilling,  distance  apart  of  rows,  50 
Drilling  vs.  broadcasting  seed,  50 
Drills   (Fig.  234),  298 

—  hoe,  for  cultivating,  59,  61 
— '  regulating,    299 

Drought-resistance,  breeding  for,    189 
Dusty  hay,    70,    107 

Dykstra,  R.  R.,  article,  419 

Economy  of  raising  alfalfa   (Figs.  145,  147, 
373),  469 

Eelworm  or  root  knot   (Fig.  300),  352 

Enemies  of  alfalfa,  156 

English  blue  grass,  mixture  with  alfalfa,  50 

Enriches  soil,   alfalfa,   215,   465 

Erf,  Oscar,  article,  259 

Europe,  history  in,   172  to  179 

Examining    seed    for    adulterants    and    im- 
purities, 45,  210 

Expense,    growing  an   acre   of  alfalfa,    168, 
169 

Experience,  years  of,  with  alfalfa,  11 

Fallowing,  for  seed  bed,  35,  38,  40,  235 

Fanning  mill  (Fig.  274),  327 

Fanning  seed  (Fig.  118),  47,  124,  271 

Farmogerm,    216 

Farm  management,  alfalfa's  place  in   (Figs. 

145,   147,  373),  469 

Feeding  cattle,  beef  (Fig.  130)   (see  "Cattle, 
beef"),   139,   140,  410 

dairy    (Fig.    131)    (see    "Cattle, 

dairy"),  143,  262,  266,  415 

—  constituents  of  alfalfa,  403,  415,  429 

—  economy  of,  versus  selling,  169,  366,  470 

—  hay,  128  to  150,  403  to  438 
alone,  138 

brown,  149 

—  horses  and  mules    (Figs.   133,   361,   362, 

363)    (see  "Horses  and  Mules"),  139, 
143,  428 

—  meal    (Fig.    121),    128,    414,    415,    423, 

432,  437,  442 

—  mules    (see    "Horses   and   Mules") 

—  poultry,   148,  436 

—  racks    (Figs.    352,    353,    354,    355,    359, 

360,  361),  140 

—  rations,    140,    414,    416,    419,    427,    432, 

437 

- — sheds,   combination  hay  and    (Figs.    101 
208,   209),   105,  251,  256 

—  sheep    (Figs.    121,    134,    135,    354)     (see 

"Sheep"),    129,    137,    139,    145,    149, 
415,   417,   419,   424 

—  straw,  alfalfa,  126 

—  swine    (Figs.    132,    357,    358,    359)     (see 

"Swine"),    129,    139,    143,    149     287 
423 

—  value  of  alfalfa,  128  to  150,  403  to  438, 

469 

brown  hay,  149 

' —  leaves    and    stems,    comparative,    242 

403,  406,  415,  429 
losses    in,    and    a    scheme    to    prevent 

them  (Fig.  210),  259 

affected  by  size  of  stack  and  plat- 
form, 89,  245 

stacking  as  a  cause,   77,  245    251 

meal,  alfalfa,  128,  442 

silage,   alfalfa,   129,  262,   266 

straw,  alfalfa    (Fig.  120),   126 

—  versus  selling  off  the  farm,  169,  366,  470 
Fermented    hay,    from    own    juices    (brown 

hay),   149 

Fertility,   economy  demands  feeding  of  hay, 
366 

—  increased  by  alfalfa,   150,   275,   466 

—  removed  from  soil  by  alfalfa,  462 


476 


General  Index. 


Fertility  requirements  of  alfalfa,   215,   230, 

462 

Fertilizer  and  lime  sower  (Fig.  242),  305 
Fertilizers,  tests  of,  238,  240 
Fertilizing  blossoms   (Figs.  167  to  183,  401), 

150,   193,  401 

—  constituents   in   alfalfa   and  other  feeds, 

463 

—  cost,   168 

—  soils   (Figs  24,  25,  202),  36,  238 

—  top-dressing  with  manure   (Fig.  53),  62, 

238 

—  value  of  alfalfa,  150,  465,  470 
Feterita  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
Fire  in  hay,   spontaneous  combustion,    105, 

246 
"Firing"   of  crops  on  alfalfa  sod  land,   151 

to  155 
Firming  soils  for  seed  bed    (Fig.    34),    40, 

235 

First  seedings  in  Kansas,  11,   12,  13 
Fitch,  J.  B.,  article,  262 
Flax,  preceding  alfalfa,  235 
Flooded  alfalfa,  164 
Flooding,   irrigation    (Figs.  219,  223),   165, 

280 

Flour,    alfalfa,    438 
Flowers  (see  "Blossoms") 
Fodder,    corn,    composition,    409 
Food,  human,  alfalfa  as  a,  438 
Forks,  hay   (Figs.  87,  88,  262  to  265),  97, 

317 
Fork  or  sling,   day's  work  unloading  with, 

249 

Forks,  pitch,  for  loading  hay  (Fig.  86),  97 
Foxtail,  green,  in  alfalfa,  55,  56,   156,  211, 

243,  333 

France,  history  in  (Fig.  152),  175 
Freezing  and  thawing,  alternate  winterkills 

alfalfa,  162,  186 
Freshening  pastures,   130 
Fresno  scraper   (Fig.  215),  277 
Frost,  killing,  last  in  spring  and  first  in  fall, 

dates   (Fig.  8),  24 
Fumigating  pests,  to  control,  161,  162,  364, 

395 

Garden  webworm   (Fig.  332),  386 
Gas,  "bloating,"  419 
Gasoline,  prairie  dog  control  with,  161 
Gatewood,  Ray,  article,  423 
Gathering  hay  from  field,   80 

—  seed  from  field,  122,  270 
Geological  survey  for  limestone,  224 
German  seed,   15,   183 

Germany,  history  in    (Fig.   152),   175 
Germination,  seed,  206,  207 

—  testing  for,    207 

Gishwiller,  J.  A.,  early  seeding  (Fig.  1),  12 

Go-devil,  80 

Gopher,    pocket    (Figs.    301    to    309),    156, 

158,   353 
Grading  and  cleaning  machines   (Figs.  274, 

275),   327 
Grading  hay,   114,   455,   457,   468 

—  rules   of  Kansas   City  Hay  Dealers'    As- 

sociation, 457 
Grain  binder  for  seed  harvesting,  120,  270 

—  header  for  seed  harvesting,  120 

—  preceding  alfalfa,    234 

—  separator  for  threshing  seed,   123 

—  small,  succeeding  alfalfa,   151  to  155 
"Grass  eggs"   from  eating  alfalfa,   436 
Grasses,   mixture  with   alfalfa,   50 
Grasshoppers  (Figs.  141,  319  to  325),  156, 

157,   374 

Grazing   (see  "Pasturing") 

Gray,    Alfred,    remarks    in    1877    about    al- 
falfa, 3 

Greece,  history  in   (Fig.  149),  173,  174 

"Green"  alfalfa   (soilage),  137,  415,  417 


Grimm  alfalfa    (Fig.    161),    183,    184,    186, 

187,  189,   191 
Grinding  alfalfa,  439 
Grosse,  Charles  J.,  first  seeding,  11 
— •  reports  oldest  field,   13 
Grub,  white    (Fig.  318),   372 
Haggart,  Margaret  H.,  article,  438 
Hall,  A.  B.,  article,   457 
Hall,  J.  P.,  early  seeding,  12 
Hansen,  N.  E.,  plant  explorer,  180,  186 
Hardiness,   winter,  breeding  for,    185 
Harrow  carts  (Figs.  35,  258),  294 
Harrow,    spike-tooth,    or    smoothing    (Figs. 

35,  40,  229,  230),  57  to  62,  294 
— •  spring-tooth,    for    cultivating    (Figs.    51, 

240),  57  to  62,  303 
Harrowing,  cost,  168 

—  seed,  depth,  53 
--seed  bed   (Fig.  35),  40 
Hauling  hay  from  field,  80,  249 

—  seed  from  field,  122,  270 
Haworth,  Erasmus,  article,  224 
Hay,   aroma  in,   73,   243 

—  baler   (see  "Machinery,  baler") 
— -baling    (see   "Baling") 

—  bales  (see  "Bales") 
— -barn    (see  "Sheds") 

—  brown,  or  tobacco-colored,  feeding  value, 

149,  246,  412 

—  caps   (Fig.  63),  75,  260 

— •  carriers    and    tracks     (see    "Machinery, 
carriers  and  tracks") 

—  charred,  246 

—  cocking  (see  "Cocks"  and  "Cocking") 

—  combustion,  spontaneous,   105,  246 

—  color  in,  73,  243,  468 

—  cured  and  ready  for  storage,  when,   76, 

244 

—  curing  (see  "Curing") 

—  cutting    (see    "cutting") 

—  demand  for,   6,  447,  454,  457,   470 

—  dusty,    70,    107 

—  feeding    (see   "Feeding") 

— -forks    (see  "Machinery,  forks") 

—  grading  for  market,    114,   455,   457 

—  hauling  to  barn,  80,  249 

—  heating,   105,  246,  247 

—  hook    (see  "Machinery,  hook") 

—  inspection    (Fig.   369),   451 

—  knives    (see   "Machinery,   knives") 
— .liming,   106,   246 

—  loader    (see    "Machinery,   loader") 

—  loading  on  cars  and  wagons   (Figs.  Ill, 

372),  97,   114,  455,  456,  459 

—  losses  in  feeding  value  from  rain    (Fig. 

210),   68,    71,   77,   89,   244,   259,   459 
— .making,  and  storing,  63,  241,  247 

—  marketing    (Figs.    Ill,    112,    367,    368, 

369),  113,  115,  246,  454,  457,  470 

—  markets  (Figs.  112,  367,  368,  369),  115, 

447 
— .measuring,   461 

—  mixed  grasses,   composition,   409 
— •  moisture  content,  244 

— .moldy,    107 

— 'mowing    (see    "Cutting") 

— -mowing  away  (see  "Storing") 

—  packing,  106 

—  pasture  furnishes  some,  130 

—  press    (see   "Machinery,   baler") 

—  price  per  ton,  average,  169 

•  quotations  on   Kansas  City  market,   6 

—  rack   (see  "Machinery,  wagon,  hay") 

—  rained  on,  68,  71,  77,  89,  244,  259,  459 

—  rake   (see. "Machinery,  rake") 

—  raking   (see  "Baking") 

— •  receipts    for   ten    years    on    Kansas    City 
market,   453 

—  salting,    106,    247 


General  Index. 


477 


Hay,  sheds  (see  "Sheds") 

—  shipping,  133  to  115,  447  to  460 

—  slings   (see  "Machinery,  slings") 

—  stacking   (see  "Stacking") 

—  stacks   (see  "Stacks") 

—  storing    (see  "Storing") 
— •  sweating,    246 

—  tracks    and    carriers     (see    "Machinery, 

tracks  and  carriers") 

—  tramping,  106 

• — •  value  per  ton,  average,  169 

—  ventilation,  105,  111,  246,  258,  458 

—  wagons  (see  "Machinery,  wagons,  hay") 
Haying,    day's  work  in,    248 

—  horses  and  crew  required,  247 
Header,  grain,  for  seed  harvesting,   120 
Heating,   hay,   105,   246,   247 
Heaving,   soil,   67,    162,   186 

Height    growth    left    for    winter    protection 

(Fig.  58),  67,  366 
Height  to  cut,  67 

—  pasture,   135 

Herbin,  James,  early  seeding,  12 
History,  earliest  records  of  State  Board  of 
Agriculture,  3 

—  first  seeding  in  Kansas,   11,   12,   13 

—  "From  Persia  to  Kansas"    (Figs.   148  to 

156),  171 

—  introduction,   into  Kansas    (Fig.   156),   3 

—  oldest  field  now  in  Kansas,   13 
Hoes,  drain,  219 

Hogs  (see  "Swine") 
Honey,  alfalfa,  402 
Hook,  hay  (Fig.  108),  111 

—  tile,  219 

Hopperdozer  (Fig.  325),  158,  378 
Horses  and  mules,  feeding  (Figs.  133,  361. 
362,  363),   143,  428 

—  hay  alone  for,  139 
brown  for,  149 

—  pasturing  (Fig.  128),  132,  434 

—  rations  including  alfalfa  hay,  143,  432 

—  required  in  haying,  247 

—  soilage,   for,   137 

—  straw,  alfalfa,  for,  126 
Hoven,  or  "bloat,"  419 

Huller,   alfalfa  or  clover    (Fig.   273),    123, 

271,   324 

Human  food,  alfalfa  as,  438 
Hunter,  S.  J.,  article,  401 
Ice,   winterkilling  caused  by,    162,   187 
Idaho's  acreage,   6 
Implements    (see  "Machinery") 
Importing  seed,  124,  180 
Improving  the  stand,  53 
Impure  seed,   45,   210 
Inoculation,    soils,    with    nitrogen-gathering 

bacteria    (Figs.    36    to    40),    43,    44, 

215,  236 
Insects  affecting  alfalfa,   156,  367 

—  alfalfa  caterpillar  (Figs  333  to  335),  387 
weevil   (Figs.  336  to  338),  389 

—  ant,  mound-building  prairie    (Fig.   342), 

393 

—  army  worm  (Figs.  326  to  329),  160,  379 
fall  (Fig.  330),  160,  383 

— beetles,  blister  (Figs.  343,  344),  395 
— 'borer,    clover-root    (Figs.    310    to    312), 
367 

—  bran  mash,  poisoned,   formula,    377 

—  caterpillar,    alfalfa    (Figs.    333    to    335), 

387 

— •  chalcis-fly,      alfalfa-seed     or     clover-seed 
(Figs.  347,  348),  398 

—  clover-hay  worm   (Fig.  349),  399 

—  clover    leaf-weevil     (Figs.    339    to    341), 

392 

—  clover-root  borer  (Figs.  310  to  312),  367 
curculio    (Figs.  313  to  315),   368 


Insects,  clover  sitones  (Figs.  316,  317),  371 
— -controlling,   156,  367 

—  curculio,  clover-root   (Figs.  313  to  315), 

368 

—  cutworm,  variegated  (Fig.  331),  161,  384 

—  'dozer  hopper    (Fig.   325),   378 

—  fall  army  worm  (Fig.  330),  383 

—  fertilizing    blossoms     (Figs.     183,     350), 

150,   195,  268,  401 

—  garden  webworm    (Fig.   332),    157,    159, 

386 

—  grasshoppers    (Figs.    141,    319    to    325), 

157,  374 

—  grub,  white   (Fig.  318),  372 

—  hopperdozer   (Fig.  325),  378 

—  leaf-hoppers  (Figs.  345,  346),  397 

—  leaf-weevil,    clover    (Figs.    339   to    341), 

392 

—  mound-building  prairie  ant    (Fig.   342), 

393 

—  poisoned  bran  mash,  formula,  377 

— -pollinating   blossoms    (Figs.    183,    350), 
150,  195,  268,  401 

—  poultry  destroying   (Fig.  141),   157,  367 

—  sitones,  clover   (Figs.  316,  317),  371 
— i  swine  destroying,  157,  367 

— variegated  cutworm  (Fig.  331),  161,  384 

—  webworm,  garden   (Fig.  332),  156,  159, 

386 

—  weevil,  alfalfa  (Figs.  336  to  338),  3 89 

—  white  grub   (Fig.  318),  372 
Inspection,  hay   (Fig.  369),  451 
Intakes,  drainage  system,  220 

Interest  on  land  and  equipment,   168,   169 
Introduction,  alfalfa  into  Kansas  (Figs.  148 

to  156),   3,  4,   11,   12,   13 
Investigation,  how  conducted,  11 
Irrigation,  alfalfa,   165,  276 

—  capacity  of  pumping  plants,  285 

—  corrugated  system,  283 

—  distributing  system,   165,   279 

—  ditches   (Figs.  143,  220,  222),   165,  279 

—  evaporation,   284 

—  flooding  system    (Figs.    219,    223),    165, 

280 

—  furrow  system,  283 

—  head  of  water  to  use,  284 
— -leveling  land  for,  165,  278 

. —  number  of  times  a  year,  167,  283 
— 'preparation,  preliminary,  165,  278 

—  requirements,   276 

—  seed  grown  under,  45 

—  seeding  under,  167,  283 

—  seepage,  284 

—  strip-check  system,  165,  280 

—  surveying  land  for,  278 

—  water,  distribution  of,  165,  280 

amount  to   apply,    167,   284 

when  to  apply,  165,  283 

— •  winter,  285 

Italy,  history  in   (Fig.   150),   173,   174 
Joseph,  J.  D.,  article,  256 
Kafir  after  alfalfa    (Fig.   139),   151  to  155 
Kansas  City  Hay  Dealer's  Association,  447, 
450,   454,   457 

—  rules  for  grading  hay,  450,  457 
Kansas  City  hay  market    (Figs.   112,    367, 

368,   369),   115,  447 

—  quotations  on  alfalfa,   6 

—  receipts  for  ten  years,  453 
Kenney,  B.,  article,  241 
Knives,  hay  (Figs.  102,  103),  106 
Laying  tile,  223 

Leaf-hoppers   (Figs.  345,  346),  397 
Leaf-spot   (Figs.  284  to  289),  341,  343 
Leaf-weevil,  clover  (Figs.  339  to  341 ),.  392 
Leaves  and  stems,  feeding  value,  compara- 
tive, 242,  403,  406,  415,  429 
Leaves  for  poultry,   145 


478 


General  Index. 


Leaves,  loss  of,  73,  243 

—  lower,  falling,   indication  of  time  to  cut, 

63 
Level,    for   farm    drainage    surveying    (Fig. 

196),  218,  220,  222 
Leveler,  land  (Pig.  216),  277 
Leveling  land  for  irrigation,    165,   278 

—  seed  bed   (Fig.  35),  40 
Life,  profitable  length  of,   13 

Lime,  amount  to  apply,  32,  228,  237 

—  disking-  and  harrowing-in  (Fig.  23),  237 
— -distributors  and  spreaders  (Figs.  20,  21, 

22,   23,   242),   32,   237,    305 
— -fire  preventive,  in  hay,   106,  247 
— form  to  apply,  32,  228,  237 

—  shipping,  228,  229 

—  soils  needing,  31,  224,  237 

— 'spreader     (see    "Lime    distributors    and 

spreaders") 
Limestone,  cement  from,  229 

—  composition  in  Kansas,  225,  227 

—  fineness  of  grinding,  228 

—  ground,   applying,    32,   228,   237 

—  list  of  firms  selling,  34 

—  hardness,  227 
— •  impurities,    227 

—  location  in  Kansas   (Fig.   199),  224 

—  outcropping  of  (Fig.  199),  224 

—  pulverizers   (Figs.  18,   19,  200),  34,  229 
— -pulverizing,   228,   229 

—  purity,  227 

—  road-building  qualities,   230 

—  zones  (Fig.  199)  225 
Liming  hay,  106,  247 

—  soils   (Figs.  17,  20,  21,  22,  23),  32,  224, 

237 

roads  in  relation  to,  229 

Lippincott,  W.  A.,  article,  436 
Litmus  paper  test  for  soil   acidity,    31 
Loader,  hay   (Figs.  85,  260,  261),  94,  249, 

317 
Loading   cars   with  baled   hay    (Fig.    Ill), 

114,  455,  456,  459 

—  wagons   with   hay    (Figs.    85,    86,    372), 

97,  459 
Lodging  crops  on   alfalfa  sod  land,   151  to 

Long,  D.  B.,  early  seeding  in  Kansas,  12 
Longevity  of  seed,  47,  208 

—  stand,    13 

Lovania,  John  A.  O.,  oldest  field  in  Kansas, 

13 

Lucerne,  name  for  alfalfa,   175,  183 
McAfee,   H.  W.,    article,    331 
McCampbell,   C.   W.,    article,    428 
Machinery,  alfalfa,  article  on,  289 

—  baler    (Figs.    104,    105,    106,    253),    108, 

246,   250,   314,   459 

—  binder,   grain,   for  seed  harvesting,    120, 

270 

—  buck  rake,  80 

—  bull  rake,    80 

—  care    (Fig.  276),   329 

—  carriers  and  tracks  (Figs.  88,  93,  94,  95, 

267,  270),  98,  321 

—  carts,  harrow   (Figs.  35,   258),   294 

—  cleaning  and  grading   (Figs.  274,   275), 

327 

—  crowder,  ditch  (Fig.  217),  279 

—  cultivator    (Figs.   50,   52,   238,   239),    57 

to  62,  303 

—  cutter,  alfalfa  (Figs.  136,  271),  324 

—  depreciation,  taxes  and  interest  on,  168, 

169 

—  disk,  in  cultivating  (Figs.  40,  227,  228), 

57  to  62,  300 

in  seed-bed  preparation  (Figs.  32,  33, 

227,   228),  40,   235,  293 

—  drags    (Fig.  230),   40 

—  drill,  old  hoe,  for  cultivating,  57  to  62 


Machinery,  fanning  mill  (Fig.  274),  124, 
327 

—  fertilizer  and  lime  sower   (Fig.  242),  305 

—  forks,  hay   (Figs.  87,  88,  262,  265),  97, 

249,  317 
pitch   (Fig.  86),   76,  97 

—  go-devil,  80 

—  grading  and  cleaning    (Figs.   274,   275), 

327 

—  harrow  carts,  294 

—  harrow,  spike-tooth,  or  smoothing,  in  cul- 

tivating, 57  to  62 

'in  seed-bed  preparation    (Figs.  35, 

229,  230),  40,  294 

spring-tooth,   in  cultivating    (Figs.  51, 

240),    57  to   62,   303 

— 'haying  (see  specific  name  under  "Ma- 
chinery") 

—  header,  grain,  for  seed  harvesting,  120 

—  hook,  hay   (Fig.  108),  111 

—  huller,   alfalfa  or  clover    (Fig.   273),  23, 

271,  324 

—  interest,  taxes  and  depreciation  on,   168, 

169 
— •  knives,  hay  (Figs.  102,  103),  106 

—  leveler,  land   (Fig.  216),  277 

—  lime    and    fertilizer    spreader    (Figs.    20, 

21,  22,  23,  242),  32,  34,  237,  305 

—  limestone  pulverizer  (Figs.  18,  19,  200), 

34,  229 

—  loader,  hay  (Figs.  85,  260,  261),  94,  317 

—  manure    spreader    (Figs.    24,    53,    241), 

36,    62,    304 

—  mower    (Figs.    56,    243)    67,    248,    270, 

305 

windrowing  and  bunching  attach- 
ments (Figs.  60,  116,  214,  244),  120, 
270,  308 

—  packer,  soil,  40 

—  plows    (Figs.  28,  29,   30,  224,  225),  38, 

39,  40,  289 
for  breaking  sod,   156 

—  press   (see  "Machinery,  baler") 

—  pulley    (Fig.   267) 
• —  push  rake,  80 

—  rake,  hay,  day's  work,  with.  248 

—  rake,   side-delivery    (Figs.    84,   246),    76, 

93,    310 

sulky   (Figs.  61,  245),  76,  309 

sweep    (Figs.    64,    247    to    251),    80, 

122,  250,  310 

—  reaper,     self-rake,     for     seed     harvesting 

(Figs.   115,   272),   120,  270,   325 

—  renovator,  or  spike-tooth  disk  (Fig.  237), 

57  to  62,  300 

—  ridger  (Fig.  218),  280 

—  roller  (Figs.  34,  231,  232,  233),  40,  295 
— •  scraper,  Fresno   (Fig.  215),  277 

—  seeders    (Figs.   44,   45,  46,    47,   48,   235, 

236),  52,  296 

—  —  regulating,  299 

—  selection,   328 

—  slings,    hay    (Figs.    89   to    93,    266),    97, 

249,   321 

— '  spike-tooth  disk  (see  "Machinery,  reno- 
vator") 

—  spreaders   (see  "Machinery,  lime  spread- 

er,"  and  "manure  spreader") 

—  stackers    (Figs.   65   to   74,    254  to  259), 

80,    314 
combined  with  sweep  rake   (Figs.  65, 

66,   67,   257,   258),   83,   314 

overshot  (Figs.  68,  70,  256),  83,  314 

— •  —  pole   and  boom    (Figs.    71,    72,    259), 

87,   315 

poles  and  cable  (Figs.  73,  74),  87 

swinging    (Figs.    69,    254,    255),    83, 

314 

—  sweep  rake    (Figs.  64,   247  to  251),   80, 

122,  250,  310 


General  Index. 


479 


Machinery,  sweep  rake  and  stacker  com- 
bined (Figs.  65,  66,  67,  257,  258), 
83,  314 

—  taxes,  interest  and  depreciation  on,   168, 

169 

—  tedder,  hay  (Fig.  252),  244,  248,  311 

—  tracks  and  carriers  (Figs.  88,  93,  94,  95, 

267  to  270),  98,  321 

— 'tractor  plowing,  laying-off  ground  for 
(Figs.  30,  226),  291 

—  wagons,    hay    (Figs.    86,    277),    80,    97, 

331,  459 
seed,  canvas-covered,  122,  270 

—  windrowing    and    bunching    attachments 

on  mower   (Figs.  60,  116,  214,  244), 

120,   270,   308 
Maintaining  animals  on  alfalfa  alone,    133, 

139,  412,  415,  418,  425 
Making  hay  and  storage,  63,  241,  247 
Manure  spreader    (Figs.   24,   25,   53,   241), 

36,    62,    304 

—  lime  applied  by,   237 

Manuring,  late  cutting  making  necessary  for 
winter  protection,  68 

—  soils   (Figs.  17,  24,  25,  202),  36,  238 
— 'top-dressing  fields  (Fig.  53),  62 
cost,   168,   169 

Mammals   in  relation   to   alfalfa,    156,    158, 

161,    353 

Manholes,  drainage  system,  220 
Market,  grading  hay  for,  114,  455,  457 

—  Kansas  City  hay    (Figs.    112,   367,    368, 

369),   115,  447 

—  quotations  on  hay,  6 

—  receipts  at  Kansas  City  for  ten  years,  453 
Marketing  hay    (Figs.    Ill,    112,   367,   368, 

369),  113,  115,  246,  470 

color  as  a  factor  in,  468 

-economy  demands  feeding,  366 

— •  — •  from  the  buyer's  standpoint,  454 

— • shipper's  standpoint,  457 

loading    cars    (Fig.    Ill),    114,    455, 

456,  459 
wagons  (Figs.  85,  86,  372),  459 

—  seed   (Fig.   119),   126,  271 

Markets,   hay    (Figs.    112,    367,    368,    369), 

113,   115,  246,  470 
Meal,  constituents,  compared  with  hay,  407 

—  feeding  value,  128,  442 

—  for   cattle,   beef,   414 
dairy,   415 

horses  and  mules,  432 

humans,  438 

poultry,  437 

'Sheep   (Fig.  121) 

swine,  423 

—  milling   (Figs.   122,  364,   365,  366),  439 

—  stock  foods  from,  444,  472 
Measuring  hay,  461 

Media,  history  in  (Fig.  148),  171 
Medicago  arborea,   180 

—  falcata,  180 

—  media,    181 

— •  ruthenica,    181 

— 'Sativa,    171,    180,    181 

Meiller,  H.  F.,  article,  266 

Melchers,  L.  E.,  article,  339 

Men  required  in  haying,  247 

Mexico,  history  in  (Fig.  153),  176,  179 

Millar,  G.  C.,  early  seeding,  13 

Millet,  preceding  alfalfa,  34,  235 

Milling    industry,    alfalfa    (Figs.    122,    364, 

365,  366),  439 

Milo  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
Mixture,  grasses  with  alfalfa,  50 
Mohler,  J.  C.,  Secretary,  2,  3 
Mohler,  Martin,  first  census  of  acreage,  4 
Moisture  content,  hay,  244 
'Soil  (Fig.  138),  151,  400 


Moisture,  on  outside  of  hay,  effect  on  time 
to  cut,  70,  244 

—  passes  out  of  stems  and  leaves,  process, 

243 

—  requirements,    alfalfa    and   other   plants, 

190,  400 

Molahan,  Charles,  first  seeding,  12 
Mold  in  hay,  107 

—  lime  or  salt  to  prevent,  106,  247 
Moles,  in  relation  to  alfalfa,  357,  366 
Moors,   history  with,    175 
Mound-building  prairie  ant  (Fig.  342),  393 
Mow,  curing  hay  in,  with  blower,  261 

—  storing  in   (see  "Storing") 

Mower    (Figs.   56,   59,  243),   67,   248,   270, 
305 

—  windrowing    and    bunching    attachments 
(Figs.  60,  116,  214,  244),  120,  270,  308 
Mowing    (see   "Cutting") 

Mowing  away   (see  "Storing") 

Muffins,  alfalfa,  438 

Mulching   with  manure   in   case  of   too-late 

cutting,   68 

Mules   (see  "Horses  and  Mules") 
Nabours,  Robert  K.,  article,  353 
Name  of  "alfalfa,"  171,  180 
Nebraska's  acreage,  6 
Net  profit   (see  "Profit") 
Nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  (see  "Bacteria") 
Nitrogen,  216 
Nodules  on  roots,  nitrogen-gathering   (Figs. 

37,  38),  45,  46,  215,  236 
North  America,  history  in,  176  to  179 
Nurse  crop,  49,  236 
Nursery,  alfalfa,  193 
Oats,  composition,  408,  429 

—  nurse  crop,  49,  236 

—  preceding  alfalfa,  34 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
Oldest  field  in  Kansas,  13 

Old  German  Frankish  alfalfa,    183 
Olophant.  Jasper,  early  seeding,  12 
Origin  of  alfalfa  and  of  its  name,  171 
Outlet,    drainage    system    (Fig.    198),    220, 

223 

Overflowed  alfalfa,  164 
Overpasturing,   129,   130,   133,   135 
Packer,  soil,  40 
Packing  hay,  in  storage,  106 

—  of  pastures,  135 

—  seed  bed,  235 

Pasture,   cutting  hay  from  and  freshening, 
130,  135,  287 

—  hog,  foreign  seed  for,  15 

Pasturing,    age   of    field    when   permissible, 
135,  242 

—  alternate    or   rotation    (Fig.    123),    130, 

135 

—  cattle,  beef   (Fig.  125),  132 
dairy  (Fig.  131),  132,  417 

—  closeness  of,  135 

—  effect  on  stand,  130,  135 

—  height  of  growth  before  permissible,   135 

—  horses  and  mules    (Fig.   128),    132,   434 

—  late,  effect  of,  67,  366 

—  poultry   (Fig.  137),  148,  436 

—  sheep   (Fig.  127),  132,  417 

—  swine    (Figs.   123,   124),   129,   287,   432, 

425,  460 

—  wet  weather  in  relation  to,  135 
Paterson,  A.  M.,  article,  417 
Persia,  history  in,  171 

Peruvian  alfalfa  (Fig.  159),  184,  191 
Pests,  affecting  alfalfa,  156,  332,  339,  353, 

367 
Peters,    G.,    inspector   of   hay,    Kansas    City 

market   (Fig.  369),  450 
Peters,  M.  C.,  alfalfa  miller,  440 
Phosphorus,    fertilizing    alfalfa    soils    with, 

238 


480 


General  Index. 


Pigweed,  or  red  root  (Fig.  279),  335 
Pitchforks  in  haying   (Fig.  86),  76,  97 
Plans,  feeding  racks  (Figs.  353,  355,  360). 

—  hay  sheds  (Figs.  96  to  101,  203  to  207) 

—  irrigation    (Fig.  219). 

—  mow  hay-drier  and  curer  (Fig.  210). 
Plant  diseases  affecting  alfalfa,   339 
Planting   (see  "Seeding") 

Plants,  number  per  acre   (Fig.  43),  206 

—  number  per  square  yard  (Fig.  43),  51 
Platform  for  hay  to  rest  upon,  89,  105,  245 
Pliny,  estimate  of  alfalfa,  174 

.Plows  (Figs.  140,  224,  225),  156,  289 
Plowing  alfalfa  sod  (Fig.  140),  155 

—  cost,  168 

—  seed-bed  preparation    (Figs.  28,   29,   30, 

31),  38,  234 

—  sod  land,  for  seed  bed,  43 

—  tractor   (Figs.  30,  226),  291 
Plugging   cars  of   hay    (Figs   367   to   369), 

451 

Pods,  seed   (Figs.  114,  184  to  187),  205 
Poisoned  bran  mash  for  insects,  157  to  161, 

367 

—  formula,  377 

Poisoning   gophers   and   prairie   dogs,    158, 

159,   161,   361,   365 
Pollinating    blossoms     (Figs.     167    to    183, 

350),   150,   193,   195,   203,  204,  268, 

491 

Potatoes,  succeeding  alfalfa,  153,  154 
Poultry,    feeding    alfalfa    hay     (Figs.     136, 

271),  148,  436 

—  insects  destroyed  by  (Fig.  141),  157,  367 

—  leaves  for,  145 

—  meal  for,  129 

—  pasturing  (Fig.  137),  148,  436 

—  rations  for,  437 

—  soilage  for,   137 
Prairie  dogs,  156,  161,  365 
Prairie  haVj  composition,  409 

—  sod,  plowing,  43 
Preceding  crops,  34,  213,  234 
Precipitation   (Fig.  5),  21,  22 
Preface,  3 

Preparation,  seed-bed,  38,  230 
Press,  hay  (see  "Machinery,  baler") 
Price,  hay,  per  ton,  average,  6,  169,  472 

—  seed,  per  bushel,  average,  169 
Pride,  Richard,  article,  447 

Prod  for  locating  gopher  runways  (Fig.  307) 
Production,  cost  (see  "Yields"),  168,  169 
Profits  and  cost,  producing  hay  and  seed, 

itemized  (Figs.  145,  147),  168 
Protection,  hay,  in  cocks  (Fig.  63),  75 
in  storage   (see  "Storing") 

—  winter,   of  fields,   growth  left  for    (Figs. 

57,  58),  67,  366 
Puddling  of  pastures,  135 
Pulley   (Fig.  267) 
Pulverizers,  limestone   (Figs.   18,   19,  200), 

34,  229 
Pumping   water   for   irrigation    (Figs.    142, 

221,  222),   165,  276,   285 
Push  rake,  80 
Putting   up   hay    (see    "Hay   Making"    and 

specific  names) 

Questionnaire,   how  handled,   11 
Racks,  feeding    (Figs.    352,   353,   354,   355, 

359,  360,  361),   140 

—  hay    (see  "Machinery,  wagon,  hay") 
Rain  at  cutting  time,  68 

— in  winter,  that  freezes,  162,  186 

—  on  hay,  losses  from,  68,  71,  77,  89,  244, 

259,  459 

—  on  seed,  effect  of,  118,  122,  270 
Rainfall  (Fig.  5),  21,  22 

Rake,  buck,  80 

—  bull,  80 

—  push,  80 

—  side-delivery  (Figs.  84,  246),  76,  93,  310 

—  sulky   (Figs.  61,  245),  76,  309 


Rake,    sweep    (Figs.    64,    247   to    251),    80, 

122,  250,  310 

Raking  hay  (Figs.  61,  84),  71,  76,  244,  248 
Rank,  counties,  in  acreage   (Fig.  4),  18 

—  Kansas,  in  acreage,  compared  with  other 

states,  6 

in  hay  produc^n  (Fig.  3),  17 

in  seed  production,  124 

Rations,  balanced  (Fig.  351),  140,  403,  438 
Rations  for  cattle,  beef,  140,  414 

—  dairy,  143,  416 

—  horses  and  mules,  143,  432 

—  poultry,  148,  437 

—  sheep   (Fig.  135),  145,  419 

—  swine   (Fig.  132),  143,  427 

Reaper,  self -rake,  for  seed  harvesting  (Figs. 

115,  272),  120,  325 

Receipts,  market,  10  years,  Kansas  City,  453 
Recleaning  seed   (Figs.  118,  274),  47,  124, 

271 
Records,    reports  of   Board   of   Agriculture, 

early  attempts  at  introduction,  3,  4 
Red  or  violet  root  rot   (Figs.  293  to  297), 

344 

Reed,  O.  E.,  article,  415 
Regions,  alfalfa,  in  Kansas  (Fig.  201),  231 
Regulating  seeders,  drill,  299 
Renovator,   or  spike-tooth  disk    (Fig.   237), 

57  to  62,  300 
Rent  on  land,  168,  169 
Reseeding,  bare  spots,  53 

—  thickening  the  stand,  53 

—  where  previously  failed,  53 
Rich,  John  H.,  old  field,  13 
Ridger   (Fig.  218),  280 
Ringing  swine,  on  pasture,  130 
Roads,  liming  in  relation  to,  229 
Roberts,   H.  F.,   article,   180 

Roller,  land   (Figs.  34,  231,  232,  233),  40, 

295 

Rolling  seed  beds  (Fig.  34),  40,  235 
Romans,  history  with,  173,   174 
Root  knot,  or  eelworm  (Fig.  300),  352 

—  rot,  brown,  352 

red  or  violet   (Figs.  293  to  297),  344 

Root  system,  developing,  importance  (Figs. 
2,  16),  241 

—  different    varieties    (Figs.    158    to    161), 

187,  189 
Roots,  depth  of  penetration  (Fig.  16),  28 

—  tubercles  on,  215,  236,  465 
Rooting,  swine,  on  pasture,  130 
Rotation,  alfalfa  in,  155 

—  pasturing,  135 

—  preceding  crops,  34 

—  succeeding  crops,  151  to  155 

Rotting  crown  caused  by  disking  (Fig.  49), 
57  to  62 

Rows,  alfalfa  in  (Figs.  212,  213,  214),  271 

Rules,  grading  hay,  Kansas  City  Hay  Deal- 
er's Association,  450,  457 

Russian  thistle,   161,  210,  334 

Rust,  alfalfa   (Figs.  282,  283),  339 

Salting  hay,  106,  247 

Sand  lucerne  (alfalfa),  181,  191 

Sandy  soils,  seeding,  236 

Scarifying  or  scratching  seed  (Fig.  42),  48 

Schmidt,  Robert,  article,  332 

Scraper,  Fresno   (Fig.  215),  277 

Season,  growing,  length  of,  23 

Seed,  acreage  in  Kansas,  117,  124 

—  adulterated,  45,  212 

—  age,  still  good,  47,  208,  271 

—  amount  to  sow  per  acre,  51,  206 

—  analyzing,  45,  210,   214 

—  bad,  45,  210,  332 

—  bees  in  relation  to,  150,  268,  401 

—  breeding  for  yield  of,  197 

—  bur  clover  as  adulterant  (Fig.  186),  212 

—  climatic    conditions    influencing    produc- 

tion, 118,  268,  269 

—  cocking,  120,  270 


General  Index. 


481 


Seed,   conditions  favorable  and  unfavorable 
to  crop,  118,  268,  269 

—  cost  of,  for  planting,  168 
production,    169 

—  crop  left  for  seed,  118,  268 

—  curing,   120,   270 

—  cutting  the  crop    (Figs.   114,   115,   116), 

120,  269 

—  cutting  left  for  seed,  which  one,  118,  268 

—  damage  from  rain,  270 

—  demand  for,  267 

—  depth  to  plant,  53 

—  description    of     (Figs.     184,     188,     189, 

191),  205 

—  discolored,  270 

—  effect  on  stand  of  raising  a  crop,  119 

—  examining    for    adulterants    and    impuri- 

ties, 45,  210 

—  fanning    (Figs.   118,   274),   47,    124,   271 

—  fertilization    of    blossoms     (Figs.    167    to 

182,   350),    150,   193,   195,   203,   204, 

268,  401 

—  foreign-grown    versus    home-grown,     15, 

45,    180 

—  germination    tests     (Fig.    41),    45,    207, 

213,  214 

—  harvesting    (Figs.    114,    115,    116),    120, 

269,  270 

—  hauling  to  stack  or  thresher,  122,  270 

—  holding,  208,  271 

—  imported,   124,   210,   330 

—  impure,  45,  210 

—  insects  in  relation  to    (Figs.    183,    350). 

150,   268,  401 

—  irrigated,  45 

—  longevity,  47,  208,  271 

—  loss  from  rain,  122,  270 

—  marketing   (Fig.  119),   126,  271 

—  mowing  (see  "Seed,  cutting") 

—  number  in  a  pound,  206 

—  parts  of,   206 

—  pods   (Figs.  114,  184  to  187),  205 

—  pollinating   blossoms    {Figs.    167   to    182, 

350),    150,   193,    195,   203,   204,   268, 
401 

—  pounds  in  bushel,  206 

—  price  per  bushel,  average,  169 

—  production     (see    "Seed,    yields")     (Fig. 

113),  117,  267 

—  profit  in  production,  169 

—  rains  on,  effect,   122,  270 

—  recleaning    (Figs.    118,    274),    47,    124, 

271 

—  rowed  alfalfa  for,   272 

—  samples  to  Agricultural  College,  210,  214 

—  scarifier  or  scratcher    (Fig.  42),  48 

—  shattering,    120, -122,    270 

—  shocking,  120,  270 

—  soil  conditions  influencing,  118,  268 

—  stacking,  122,  270 

—  stand,  thickness  of,  influencing,  118,  267 

—  storing,   126,  270 

—  sweet  clover   (Figs.  185,  190) 

—  testing    for    germination    (Fig.    41),    45, 

207,  213,   214 

—  threshing    (Fig.  117),  123,  271 

—  time  required  to  produce  a  crop,  119,  268 

—  time  to  cut,  120,  269 

—  time  to  stack  or  thresh,  123,  270 

—  transporting  from  field,  122,  270 

—  value,  per  bushel,  average,   169 

—  weather,     conditions     influencing,      118, 

268,  269 
— 'weed,  in  alfalfa,  45,   119,  210,   332 

—  weight    per   bushel,    206 

—  when   to   leave   for,    269 

—  where  grown    (Fig.    113),    117,   267 

—  yellow  trefoil,   as  adulterant   (Fig.   187), 

212 

—  yie.Ws,  average  per  acre,  124 


Seed,    yields,    total    in    Kansas    and    United 

States,  117,  124 
Seed  bed,  disking  (Figs.  32,  33),  40,  235 

—  fallowing,   35,   38,   40,   235 

—  firming   (Fig.  34),  40,  235 

—  ideal   (Figs.  26,  27,  31),  38,  234 
— 'Plowing,   38,   234 

—  preparation    (Figs.  26,  27,  31),  38,  230 

—  pulverizing,    40,    235 

—  rolling   (Fig.   34),   40,   235 

—  sod  land,  plowing,  43 

Seeders    (Figs.    44,    45,    46,    47,    48,    235, 
236),   52,   296 

—  regulating,    299 
Seeding,  48,  235 

— •  amount  to  sow  per  acre,  51,  206 
— -bare  spots  in  field,  53 

—  broadcasting  versus  drilling,  50 
— 'Cost,    168    - 

— •  covering,   53 

—  dates,  49 

—  depth  to  plant,  53 

—  fall,   plowing  for,   40,   234 

—  fall  versus  spring,  48,  49,  235 

—  mixture,  grasses  with  alfalfa,  50 

—  nurse  crop  with  alfalfa,  49,  236 

— -plants   per   square   yard    (Fig.    43),    51, 

206 
— •  sandy  soils,  236 

—  sod    land,    43 

—  spring,  plowing  for,  40,  235 

—  spring  versus  fall,  48,  49,   235 

—  succeeding  where  previously  failed,  53 

—  thickening  stand,  53 

—  thickness  of  stand  (Fig.  43),  51,  206 
— •  when  to   sow,   48,   49,   235 
Seedsmen  buy  seed,  126 

Selection,  natural,  of  varieties,  183 
Selling  hay  or  seed  (see  "Marketing") 
Selling  versus  feeding  hay,  169,  366,  470 
Separator,    grain,    for    threshing    seed    (sep 

"Machinery,  thresher") 
Shattering  seed,    120,    122,   270 
Sheds,  hay,  adjustable  roof  (Fig.  100),  104 

—  combination    hav    and    feed    (Figs.    101, 

208,   209),   105,  251,  256 

—  construction    (Figs.    96    to    101,    203    to 

207),    102,    251 
— 'Cost,    102,    255 

—  curing  hav  in,   102,  258,  260    261 

—  filling  {Figs.  96,  97,  98),  102 

—  interest,  taxes  and  depreciation  on,   168, 

169 

—  longevity.   251 

—  plans    (Figs.    96    to    101,    203    to    207), 

102,   251 

—  versus    stacks    as    place    of    storage,    77, 

245,   251 
Sheep,  "bloat"   (see  "Bloat") 

—  feeding  hav   (Figs.  121,   134,   135,  354), 

145,   149,  417 
cutting  preferred,  419 

—  maintenance   on   alfalfa  alone,    139,    418 

—  pasturing  (Fig.  127),  132,  417 

— -rations  including  alfalfa  hay  (Fig.  135), 
145,  419 

—  silage,  129,  424 

—  soilage  for,   137,  415,  417 
Sheep  sorrel  or  sour  dock,  334 
Shelton,  E.  M.,  remarks  about  alfalfa,  4 
Shipper's,    hay-marketing    from    standpoint 

of,  457 

Shipping  hay    (see  "Marketing") 
Shocking  seed,   122,   270 
Shoots,  indication  of  time  to  cut   (Fig.  55), 

63,  242 

Shorts,  wheat,  composition,  408 
Siberian  alfalfa,   180,   186 


—17 


482 


General  Index. 


Sickle    alfalfa    (Pig.    160),    180,    187,    189, 

191 

Sickle-bar,  height  to  set  in  cutting,  67 
Silage,  alfalfa   (Fig.  211),  129,  262,  266 

made  in  stack,  265 

mixtures  used  in  making,  264 

feeding  cattle,  dairy,  262,  264 

swine,    424 

—  corn,  feeding  constituents,  407 

—  crop  following  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
, —  kafir,  feeding  constituents,  407 

—  sorghum,  feeding  constituents,  407 
Sitones,  clover  (Figs.  316,  317),  371 
Size  of  fields,  average,  71 

Sleet,  winterkilling  caused  by,   162,   186 
Slings,  hay   (Figs.  89  to  93,  266),  97,'  249, 

321 

Slush,   freezing,    162,    187 
Smoothing,  in  seed-bed  preparation,  40,  168, 

235 

Smothering  plants  with  hay,  244 
Snouting  swine,  on  pasture,  130 
Sod,  alfalfa,  crops  grown  on,  150  to  155 
plowing  (Fig.  140),  155 

—  land,  plowing  for  alfalfa  seed  bed,  43 
Soilage,  alfalfa,   137,  415,  417 

Soils,   acid    (Figs.   17,    20  to   25,   202),   31, 

224,   237 
bacteria  will  not  live  in,  225,  237 

—  - — cause,  228 

lime  for   (see  "Liming") 

location,  237 

— .  —  testing,  31,  237 

—  adapted  to  alfalfa,  38,  224,  230 

—  blowing,  sandy,  cane  stubble  preventing, 

236 

—  bottom  land  versus  upland,    13,    16,   28, 

234 

—  breaking  alfalfa  sod  (Fig.  140),  155 
breaking  sod-land  for  seed  bed,  43 

—  building  up  with  alfalfa,   150,  275,  466, 

470 

—  central  Kansas,  233 

— —  composition,  alfalfa  compared  with  other 
crops,  467 

—  correction  when  wet  and  sour  (Figs.  17, 

20   to    25,    202),    29,    216,    224,    237, 
238 

—  disking  for  seed  bed   (Figs.  32,  33),  40, 

235 

—  drainage  (Figs.  17,  194  to  198),  29,  216 

—  effect  of  alfalfa  upon,  150,  462 

—  enriched  by  alfalfa,   150,   275,  466,   470 

—  fallowing  for  seed  bed,   35,   38,   40,  235 
— -  fertility,   economy  demands  feeding  hay, 

366 
increased  by   alfalfa,    150,    275,    466, 

470 

removed  by  alfalfa,  215,  462 

requirements  of  alfalfa,  215,  230,  462 

—  fertilizing  for  alfalfa    (Figs,   17,   24,   25, 

202),   36,   238,   240 

--  fertilizing,  top-dressing  with  manure,  62, 
238 

—  firming  for  seed  bed  (Fig.  34),  40,  235 

—  geological  survey  for  limestone,  224 

—  glacial,  231 

—  ideal  for  alfalfa,  28,  230 

—  inoculation   with  nitrogen-gathering  bac- 

teria   (Figs.   36  to   40),   43,   44,    215, 
236 

—  leveling  (Fig.  35),  40,  278 

—  limestone  (Fig.  199),  224,  233 

—  liming    (Figs.    17,    20,    21,    22,    23),    32, 

224.  237 

—  manuring    (Figs.    17,    24,   25,    202),    36, 

238 
—  top-dressing  fields  (Fig.  53),  62 

—  moisture    content   of    alfalfa    fields    (Fig. 

138),   151,  400 


Soils,  northeastern  Kansas,  231 

- — packed  and  their   cultivation,    57   to   62 

135 
— •  packing,  for  seed  bed,  235 

—  phosphorus   for,    240 

—  plowing  for  seed  bed    (Figs.  28,  29,   30, 

31),  38,  234 

—  preparation  for  seeding,  38.  230,  234 
— 'pulverizing  for  seed  bed,  40,  235 

—  regions  in  Kansas  (Fig.  201),  231 
— •  residual,  233 

—  rolling  for  seed  bed  (Fig.  34),  40,  235 

—  sandstone,  233 

—  sandy,  seeding,  236 

—  shale,  233 

—  sod,  alfalfa,  breaking   (Fig.  140),   155 

—  sod-land,   breaking,   43 

—  sour  (see  "Soils,  acid") 

- —  southeastern,   Kansas,   233 

—  subsoil,   29,   181,   230 

—  summer  fallowing  for  seed  bed,   35,   38 

40,  235 

—  testing  for  acidity,  31,  237 

—  texture  on  which  alfalfa  may  be  grown, 

29.   231 

—  top-dressing  with  manure    (Fig.   53),   62 

—  upland  versus  bottom  land,    13,    16,   28 

234 

—  water   table,    distance   from   surface     29 

230 

—  western  Kansas,  234 

—  wet,  drainage  (Figs.  194  to  198),  29,  216 
Sorghums  preceding  alfalfa,   236 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
Sour  soils   (See  "Soils,  acid") 
South  America,  history  in,  177,  179 
Sowing  (see  "Seeding") 

Spades,  skeleton  for  ditch  digging,  218 

Spain,  history  in   (Fig.  151),  173  to  179 

Species,  180 

Spike-tooth  disk,  or  renovator  (Fig.  237), 
57  to  62,  300 

Spike-tooth  harrow,  or  smoothing,  in  culti- 
vating, 57  to  62 

—  in  seed-bed  preparation    (Figs.   35,   229, 

230),  40,   294 
Splitting  crowns  by  disking    (Fig.   49),    57 

to  62 
Spraying    formula    for    destroying    insects, 

383,  396 

Spraying,  insects  controlled  by,  367 
Spreader,    lime   and  fertilizer    (Figs.    20   to 

23,  242),   32,  237,   305 

—  manure   (Figs.  24,  53,  241),  36,  62,  304 
Spreading  lime    (see  "Liming") 

—  manure   (see  "Manuring") 
Spring-tooth  harrow,   for  cultivating    (Figs. 

51,  240),  57  to  62,  303 
Sprouts,  indication  of  time  to  cut,  63,  242 
Stack  bottoms  and  platforms,  89,   105,  245 

—  bulge   (Fig.  78),  89 

—  covers  (Figs.  79  to  83),  90,  246,  400 
Stacks  (Figs.  75,  76,  77),  87,  245 

—  losses  as  related  to  size  and  shape,    and 

platform  beneath,  89 

—  in  feeding  value  from  storing  in,   77, 
245,  251 

—  rectangular  versus  round    (Figs.  75,   76, 

.     77),  87,  88,  89 

—  silage  made  in,  265 

—  storage    in,    versus   sheds    or   mows,    77, 

245,  251 

—  weighting,  90 

Stackers  (Figs.  65  to  7-4,  254  to  259),  80, 
314 

—  combined  with  sweep  rake  (Figs.  65,  66, 

67,  257,   258),   83,   314 

—  overshot  (Figs.  68,  70,  256),  83,  314 

—  pole  and  boom   (Figs.  71,   72,  259),   87, 

315 

—  pole  and  cable  (Figs.  73,  74),  87 

—  swinging    (Figs.  69,   254,   255),   83,   314 


General  Index. 


483 


Stacking    (Figs.   75,   76,    77),   87,   245,   250 

—  green  alfalfa,  265 

—  hay  is  cured  and  ready  for,  when,  76,  245 

—  seed,  122,  270 
Star  thistle,  210,  338 
Statistical  birthyear,  4 

Statistics,  acreage  of  alfalfa,  1891  to  1915, 
inclusive,  4 

—  acreage  of  alfalfa,  by  counties,  1891  and 

1915,   5 

—  average  number  of  cuttings  and  average 

yield  per   acre  for   each  cutting,    and 
all  cuttings,  by  counties,  19,  20 

—  rank  of  Kansas  in  alfalfa  acreage,  6 
Stems   and  leaves,   feeding  value,    compara- 
tive, 242,  403,  406,  415,  429 

Stem  cracking  disease   (Pig.  298),  349 
Sticking  for  "bloat"   (Fig.  356),  136,  421 
Stock  foods,  meal  in,  444,  472 
Storing  hay,   baled    (Figs.    109,    110,    370), 

111,  246,  258,  458 

cost.   168,  169 

cured  and  ready  for,   when,    76,   245 

loose,    green,    in   shed,   barn   or   stack 

(Fig.   210),    102,   258,   260,   261,   265 

shed  or  mow  versus  stack,  as  place 

of,  77,  245,  251 

—  sheds,    filling    (Figs.    96,    97,    98), 
102,  245,  249 

—  mowing    away    (Figs.    87    to    95), 
97,   245,   249 

—  stacking,  87,  245,  250 
ventilation,   105,   111,  246,  258 

—  seed,  before  threshing,  122 
threshed,    126 

Stover,  corn,  composition,  409 
Strabo,   estimate  of  alfalfa,   174 
Strains  of   alfalfa    (see   "Varieties,    types"' 
Straw,  alfalfa,  feeding  value  (Fig.  120), 
126 

—  oats,  composition,  409 

—  wheat,  composition,  409 

Strychnine  to  poison  gophers,  158,  159,  361 
Subsoil,  texture,  for  alfalfa,  29,  181,  230 
Succeeding    crops,    best    to    follow    alfalfa, 
151  to  155 

—  effect  of  alfalfa  on,  150 

Summer  fallowing  for  seed  bed,  35,  38,  40, 

235 
Sunshine,    number    of    clear    days    in    year 

(Fig.  9),  23,  25 

Survey,  geological,  for  limestone,  224 
Surveying  for  drainage   (Fig.  196),  222 
Swanson,  C.  O.,  article,  403 
Swath,  curing,   71,  73,   244 
Sweating,  hay,   246 
Sweep  rake  (Figs.  64,  247  to  251),  80,  122, 

250,  310 

—  combined  with  stacker  (Figs.  65,  66,  67, 

257,  258),  83,  314 

Sweet  clover,  inoculates  for  alfalfa,  43,  215, 
237 

—  seed  (Figs.  185.  190) 

Swine,  .feeding   hay    (Figs.    132,    357,    358, 
359),  143,  149,  423 

—  cutting  preferred,  423 

—  gains  on  alfalfa,  130,  287,  426 

—  insects  destroyed  by,   157.   367 

—  maintenance  on  alfalfa  alone,   131,   139, 

425 

—  pasturing    (Figs.    123,    124),    129,    287, 

423,  425,  460 

—  rations     including     alfalfa     (Fig.     132), 

143,   287,  427 

—  ringing  and  snouting  on  pasture,  130 

—  soilage  for,    137 
Tachina  fly    (Fig.  329) 

"Tapping"  for  "bloat"   (Fig.  356),  136,421 
Taxes  on  land  and  equipment,  168,  169 
Tea,' alfalfa,  438 
Tedder,  hay   (Fig.  252),  244,  248,  311 


Ten  Eyck,  A.  M.,  articles,  251,  461 
Testing  acid  soils,  31,  237 

—  seed,  for  germination  (Fig.  41),  45,  207, 

213,  214 
Tests  of  fertilizers,  238,  240 

—  winter-hardiness,  185 

Thawing    and    freezing,    winterkills    alfalfa, 

162,  186 

Thickening  the  stand,   53,   119 
Thickness  of  stand   (Fig.  43),  51,  201 
Thistles,  Russian,  161,  210,  334 
Threshers,   for   seed    (Fig.   273),    123,    271, 

324 

Threshing  seed  (Fig.  117),  123,  271 
Tile,  barn  built  with,  258 
Tiling  land  for  drainage  (Figs.  194  to  198), 

29,   216 

Timothy,  composition,  409 
— •  feeding  value  compared  with  alfalfa  for 

dairy    cattle,    416 

Tobacco-colored  hay   (see  "Brown  hay") 
Tod,  W.  J.,  feeding  rack    (Figs.   352,   353) 
Ton,  cubic  feet  in,  461 
Ton,  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  hay  in,  266 
Tons  per  acre   (see  "Yields")  . 
Tools    (see   "Machinery") 
Top-dressing   with    manure    (Fig.    53),    62, 

168,   169 
Tracks  and  carriers    (Figs.   88,  93,   94,   95, 

267  to  270),  98,  321 
Tramphig  hay,  stored,  106 
Trampling  of  pastures,  135 
Transporting  hay  from  field,  80,   249 
— ^seed  from  field,   122,  270 
Trapping  gophers  (Fig.  309),  158,  159,  364 
Tripping  blossoms   (Figs.  167  to  182,  350), 

150,   193,   195,   203,   204,   268,  401 
Trocar  and  canula  for  "bloat"    (Fig.   129), 

136,  421 

—  how  to  use  (Fig.  356),  421 

Trowel  for  setting  gopher  traps   (Fig.  308) 
Tubercles  on  roots,  nitrogen-gathering   (Figs. 

37,   38),   45,   46,   215,   236 
Turkestan  alfalfa,   15,   183,   186,   187,   189, 

191,  330 

Turkeys   (see  "Poultry")    (Fig.  141) 
Twisting  hay  to  tell  if  cured,   76,  245 
Tympanites,  or  "bloat,"  .419 
Types  of  alfalfa  (see  "Varieties") 
Underflow,    pumping    from,    for    irrigation, 

(Figs.  142,  221,  222),  165,  276 
Unloading  hay,  97,  98,  245,  249 
Upland  versus  bottom  land,  13,  28,  234 
Utah's  acreage,   6 

Ventilation  of  hay,  105,  111,  246,  258 
Valleys   (see  "Bottom  land") 
Value,  alfalfa  to  Kansas  agriculture,  6 

—  feeding  (see  "Feeding  value") 

—  hay,  per  ton,  average,  6,  169,  472 

—  seed,  per  bushel,  average,  169 

—  total,  for  annual  crop  in  Kansas,  6 
Variegated  alfalfa,   181 

—  cutworm  (Fig.  331),  384 
Varieties,  15,  181  to  185 

—  Arabian,  184 

—  Baltic,    187 

—  Chilean   (Fig.  158)    (Common),  185 

— •  foreign-grown    seed    versus    home-grown, 
15,  45,   180 

—  Grimm    (Fig.   161),   183 

—  Peruvian    (Fig.   159).   184 
— •  regional,  182 

—  sickle    (Fig.   160),   180 

—  Turkestan,   15,   183,  330 

— •  types   (Figs.   157,   162  to  166),   182 
Wagons,    canvas-covered    for    hauling   seed, 
122,   270 

—  hay  (Figs.  86,  277),  80,  97,  331,  459 
Walker,   H.   B.,    article,    276 


484 


General  Index. 


Water,  irrigation    (see  "Irrigation") 

—  requirements  of  alfalfa  and  other  plants 

190,  400 

— •  standing  on   alfalfa,    overflow,    162.    164 
Watertable,   distance  from  surface,   29,   230 
Waters,  H.  J.,  article,  171 
Weather   (see  "Climate") 
Webworm,    garden    (Fig.    332)      157     159 

386 
Weeds   affecting  alfalfa,    55,    56,    156     161 

210,   243,   332 

—  buckhorn  (Figs.  193,  281),  337 

—  burning -over  field  to  destroy,  57 

—  chicory,   210,   338 

—  controlling,    55,    56,    57,    119,    213.    243 

332 

—  crab  grass,  55,  56,  156,  211,  243 

—  cultivation,  55,  56,  57,  332 

—  cutting,  in  alfalfa,  55,  56,  67,  241,  332 

—  dock,  curled   (Fig.  278),  333 
sour,  or  sheep  sorrel,  334 

—  dodder   (Figs.  192,  280),  161,  210 

—  foxtail,  green,  55,  56,  156,  211    243,  333 
— •  pigweed,  or  red  root  (Fig.  279),  335 

—  Russian  thistle,    161,    210 

—  seed,   in  alfalfa  seed,  45,   119.   210    33V', 

—  star  thistle,  210,  338 
Weedy  fields,  seed  from,  119 

Weevil,  alfalfa    (Figs.  336  to  338),   389 
Weighting  stacks,  90 
Weiss,  Otto,  first  alfalfa  miller,  439 
Wells,    irrigation,    for    alfalfa     (Figs.*    142 

221,  222),  165,  276 
Wheat,  composition,  408 

—  nurse  crop,  236 

—  preceding  alfalfa,  34,  35,  234 

—  succeeding  alfalfa,  151  to  155 
Wheeler,  W.  A.,  and  Baltic  alfalfa.   187 
Wichita  hay  mar'ket,  115 

Willard,  J.  T.,  article,  462 

Wilting  hay  to  right  condition  for  raking,  71 

Windrow,     baling     hay    from     (Fig.     104) 

.   107,  246,  458 

.Windrow,  curing  in,  73,  243,  249,  270 
Windrowing  and  bunching  attachments  on 

mower     (Figs.    60.     116.    214.     244), 

120,   240,   308 


}\  inds,  cold,  dry,   winterkilling  alfalfa,   162 
Wintering    animals    on    alfalfa    alone     133 

139,  412,  415,   418,  425 
\\  mter-hardiuess,   breeding  for,    185 
Winterkilling,  162,   186 

—  cutting  improperly  as  a  cause  (Fig.  58) 

55,  56,   67,  241,  242,  366          . 
Winter    protection,    growth    left    for    (Fi°-s 

57,   58),  67,  366 
Wirt,  F.  A.,  article,  289 
Wiseman,  R.  E.,  289 
Wright,  C.  W.,  article,  439 
Years  of  experience  with   alfalfa,   growers', 

Yellow  top,    349 

Yellow  trefoil,    as   adulterant   of   seed    (Fig 

187),  212 

Yield,  breeding  for  forage,  193 
seed,  197 

—  hay,  effect  on,  of  climate,  22  to  28 
of  cultivation,  57  to  62 

—  of     cutting     at     certain     stage     of 
growth,   243 

of  fertilizing,   238,   240 

—  of  irrigation    (Fig.  144),   165,   167 
— -of    thickness    of    stand    (Fig.    43), 

51,   201 

—  of  top-dressing  with  manure,  62 

—  per    acre,    average,    by    cuttings    for 
seasons    (Fig.   146),    16 

by  cuttings  for  seasjn,  by  counties. 

19,   20 

by  irrigation,   16.5,   167 

— in  rows,  275 

—  total    in    Kansas    as    whole    and    by 
thirds    (Figs.   3,   4),   16 

United    States,    distribution     (Fig. 

3),  17 

—  seed,  per  acre,  average  and  total,  124 
total    in    Kansas    and    United    States 

(Fig.  113),  117,  124 

—  succeeding  crops,  on   alfalfa  land,   153  to 

155 
Yoxall,  George,  old  field,  13 


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